PRIMARY 


SYSTEMATIC 

HUMAN 

PHYSIOLOGY,  ANATOMY, 

AND 

hygiene: 


A NEW  AND  IMPROVED  METHOD  OF  ANALYSIS  AND  CLASSIFICATION,  BOTH 
SIMPLE  AND  COMPLETE,  PRACTICAL  AND  INTERESTING, 

ADAPTED  TO  THE  USE  OF  YOUNG  SCHOLARS. 


ftotg  gtoto  attir  tablet*  lltotratim 


BY 

T.  S.  LAMBERT,  M.  D. 


NEW  YORK: 

WILLIAM  WOOD  & CO.,  m-  WALKER  STREET. 

186  7. 


For  Preface  and  how  to  teach  the  Subject,  see  last  page 
of  book. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1867,  by 
T.  8.  LAMBERT, 

In  the  Clerk’s  Office  of  the  District  Court  for  the  Southern  District  of  New  York. 


JOHN  F.  TROW  & CO., 

PRINTERS,  STEREOTYPERS,  fy  ELECTROTYPERS, 


511 
l nsp 


PRIMARY, 

SYSTEMATIC 

PHYSIOLOGY,  ANATOMY,  AND  HYGIENE. 


CHAPTER  I. 

~ INTRODUCTORY. 

1.  IP  A FATHER  SHOULD  MAKE  A BIRTHDAY  PRESENT 
OF  A WATCH  TO  A YOUNG  SON  OR  DAUGHTER,  (I  hope 

every  boy  and  girl  will  some  day  receive  this  pleasing 
and  useful  present,)  ought  he  not  at  once  to  teach  the 
child  how  to  wind  it,  set  the  hands,  &c.  ? 

2.  If  the  father  should  teach  the  child  how  to 

TAKE  CARE  OF  AND  USE  THE  WATCH,  not  to  Open  it 

oftener  than  necessary  because  of  dust  getting  into  it, 


Questions. — The  dash  in  the  questions  signifies  that  the  capitalized  words 
of  the  corresponding  paragraph  are  to  be  used  in  place  of  the  dash.  Example  : 

1.  — what  ought  he  to  do  ? should  be  read,  Ip  a father  should  mare  a birth- 
day present  OP  A WATCH  TO  A YOUNG  SON  OR  DAUGHTER,  what  OUght  he  to  do  ? 

2.  What  would  be  the  effect  — ? should  be  read,  What  would  be  the  effect 

IP  THE  FATHER  SHOULD  TEACH  THE  CHILD  HOW  TO  TAKE  CARE  OP  AND  USE  TflE 

watch?  3.  What  — ? should  be  read,  What  has  every  child  received? 
The  position  of  the  verb  in  this  case  is  changed  a little.  Sometimes  a word 
must  be  thus  changed,  or  one  added,  or  one  dropped*  The  object  of  the  in. 
vention  was  to  question  the  paragraphs  thoroughly , and  yet  occupy  but  little 
space.  The  method  effects  the  object  admirably. 

1 


2 


INTRODUCTORY. 


not  to  breathe  into  it  because  the  moist  breath  might 
rust  it,  &c.,  and  the  child  should  give  heed  to  what  he 
was  told,  would  not  the  watch  last  longer  and  keep 
better  time  ? 

3.  Every  child  has  received  a birthday  present 
of  much  more  value  than  a watch ; I mean,  his  own 
body. 

4.  If  a child  learns  to  take  care  of  his  body, 
will  it  not  be  likely  to  last  him  longer,  and  serve  him 
better,  than  if  he  knows  nothing  about  it  ? Of  course 
it  will ; and,  therefore,  every  one,  even  while  young, 
should  learn  such  things  as  are  in  this  book. 

5.  If  any  child  should  receive  a present  of  a 
watch,  would  it  not  be  very  strange  if  he  should  hear  it 
tick,  and  see  the  hands  move  over  the  face,  day  after 
day,  without  wishing  to  have  the  watch  opened  and 
the  causes  of  the  sounds  and  of  the  motion  explained  ? 

6.  The  body  that  every  child  has  is  much  more 
curiously  made  than  any  watch.  A child’s  hands  and 
arms  can  not  only  move  round  in  a circle,  but  also  in 
many  different  ways  ; indeed,  one  finger  of  a child’s 
hand  is  more  curious  than  both  hands  of  a watch,  with 
all  their  moving  wheels. 

7.  If  the  ear  is  placed  over  the  breast  a little 
to  the  left  of  its  centre,  a very  distinct,  pleasant  sound 
will  be  heard,  repeated  a little  oftener  than  once  in  a 
second. 

8.  This  regular,  frequent  sound  heard  in  the 
chest  is  caused  by  the  heart — a small  organ  about  as 
large  as  a man’s  fist.  It  is  one  of  the  most  useful  parts 
of  the  body,  because  it  drives  the  blood  through  all 
parts. 

9.  Fig.  1 shows  a picture  of  a heart,  5,  snugly 
nestled  between  the  lungs  on  each  side.  The  breast- 


4.  What  effect  — ? 5.  What  would  be  strange  — ? 6.  What  is  said  of  — ? 
7.  What  is  heard  — ? 8.  By  what  is  — ? Why  is  the  heart  one  of  the  most 
useful  organs  ? 


INTRODUCTORY. 


3 


bone  and  the  front  ends  of  the  ribs  have  been  taken 
away,  and  the  heart  is  close  under  them  ; that  is  the 
reason  it  can  be  heard  so  plainly. 

Fig.  1.  ' 


10.  Every  one  who  has  not  before  done  it,  should 
place  his  ear  over  the  heart  and  listen  to  its  sounds. 
They  will  cause  more  pleasure  than  any  child  ever  en- 
joyed in  hearing  a watch  tick,  especially  if  it  is  known 
how  very  faithfully  the  heart  will  do  its  duty. 

11.  This  little  active  worker  will  never  tire 
during  a long  life;  night  and  day,  till  even  more  than 


9.  What  does  Fig.  1 show  ? Is  not  8 also  upon  the  heart  ? 10.  What  should 
every  one  do  if  he  has  not  done  it  before  ? 11.  How  does  — work  ? For 

what  does  it  work  so  constantly  ? 


4 


INTRODUCTORY. 


a hundred  years  pass  away,  it  will  work  on — and  with 
what  surprising  regularity  ! — to  give  life  and  health,  and 
warmth  and  comfort  to  all  parts  of  the  body,  throbbing 
or  beating  more  than  four  thousand  times  per  hour 
during  all  the  hours  of  the  longest  life. 

12.  But  if  a child  should  receive  a present  of 
a nice  watch,  it  would  wish  to  learn  the  names 
of  its  chief  parts.  It  would  not  like  to  call  the  “ key  55 
a winder,  nor  the  “ .crystal  ” a window  ; for  though  the 
words  would  be  understood,  they  would  not  sound  well, 
because  they  are  not  generally  used  in  that  way. 

13.  Every  one  should  learn  the  proper  names  of 
those  parts  of  the  body  that  are  most  important  and 
most  frequently  spoken  of ; for,  if  a person  knows  the 
proper  names  of  objects,  he  will  be  prepared  to  hear  or 
to  read  about  them  at  any  time,  and  he  will  appear 
creditably  if  he  speaks  about  them. 

14.  Every  child  seeing  a watch  opened,  will 
wish  to  know  what  the  parts  are  for,  and  will  enjoy  a 
pleasure  in  learning  ; because  knowledge  is  so  very 
useful  to  us,  that  it  has  been  made  very  pleasant  for  him 
to  gain  knowledge. 

15.  Every  child  will  be  still  more  interested 
to  learn  how  we  breathe,  drink,  and  eat  ; what  be- 
comes of  the  air,  water,  and  food,  of  which  three  things 
every  boy  or  girl  in  a year  uses  as  much  as  two  horses 
could  draw;  also  how  we  walk,  run,  talk,  wink,  sneeze, 
and  cough  ; how  we  hear,  see,  smell,  &c. ; how  we  grow, 
keep  warm,  and  a hundred  such  things. 

16.  There  is  another  very  important  reason 
why  every  child  should  study,  and  in  the  right  manner, 
the  subjects  upon  which  this  book  treats. 

17.  It  will  be  difficult  for  a young  person  to 
fully  understand  this  reason  ; but  he  should  try  to 


12.  What  — ? 13.  What  — ? Why  ? 14.  What  will  — ? Why  ? 15.  What 
will  — ? Why  ? 1G.  — for  what  ? 17.  Though  — what  should  he  try  to  do  ? 

Why  try  to  understand  the  reason  for  studying  ? 


INTRODUCTORY. 


5 


do  so  in  part,  because  it  will  give  him  courage  to  learn 
everything  thoroughly ; therefore,  I will  try  to  explain 
the  reason  as  clearly  as  possible. 

18.  Most  things  wear  out  by  use;  some,  like  a 
plow,  or  axle,  are  at  first  improved  by  use,  but  soon 
begin  to  wear  out. 

19.  Our  minds  by  proper  use  are  improved  to  a 
wonderful  degree — indeed,  to  a degree  almost  beyond 
belief. 

20.  One  of  the  best  improvements  that  can  be 
produced  in  the  mind,  is  to  have  it  become  unwilling  to 
do  anything  for  which  the  reason  is  not  plain,  and  to 
ask  a reason  for  everything  it  does. 

21.  The  study  of  our  bodies  in  the  right  man- 
ner, is  the  very  best  of  studies,  because  it  shows 
so  clearly  that  every  part  of  the  body  was  made  for  a 
purpose,  and  that  there  is  a good  cause  and  reason  for 
everything  and  every  action  in  the  body. 

. 22.  It  is  natural  to  suppose,  therefore,  that  a 
mind  that  learns  so  many  whys  and  wherefores  as 
this  study  can  give,  will,  from  habit,  be  very  apt  to 
seek  for  a cause  and  reason  for  everything  else. 

23.  As  the  mind  studies  the  uses  of  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  body,  many  of  them  are  found  to 
be  alike ; these  are  put  together  in  a class,  or  classified. 

24.  These  classes  are  found  to  act  upon  each 
other,  and  thus  the  classes  are  classified,  in  an  orderly 
or  systematic  manner ; which  means,  that  all  the  parts 
act  together  to  gain  a desired  and  intended  result — as 
the  wheels  of  a watch  act  together  systematically  to 
cause  the  hands  to  show  the  time.  Now  this  action  of 
the  mind  in  classifying  is  one  of  the  most  important, 
as  well  as  one  of  the  most  useful,  as  a habit,  that  can  be 
practised.  But,  again,  to  class  things  according  to  their 


18.  Effect  of  use  upon  — ? 19.  Effect  of  activity  upon  — ? 20.  What  is  — ? 
21.  Why  is  — ? 22.  What  — ? 23.  What  result  — ? 24.  How  are  — ? What 
does  the  mind  the  greatest  good  ? 


PLATE  6 


6 


INTRODUCTORY. 


Fig.  1.  Fig.  2.  Fig.  3.  Fig.  4.  Fig.  5.  Fig. 


INTRODUCTORY. 


7 


■use  or  action  upon  each  other,  does  the  mind  the 
greatest  good. 

25.  The  plate-page  6 is  introduced  to  illustrate 
what  is  meant  by  classifying  systematically.  It  is  num- 
bered 6,  because  it  occurs  systematically  after  the  5 
plate-pages  that  it  represents  in  a condensed  manner. 
This  and  other  plate-pages,  when  used,  will  be  numbered 
according  to  their  natural  order. 

26.  Fig.  1 (plate-page  6)  represents  the  skeleton 
or  framework  of  the  body,  composed  of  parts  similar 
to  each  other  in  most  respects,  though  differing  in 
some. 

27.  The  skeleton  is  found  from  head  to  foot ; it 
supports  all  parts,  and  protects  some  ; its  parts  are 
united  by  joints,  most  of  which  allow  motion  of  one 
part  upon  another. 

28.  Fig.  2 (plate-page  6)  represents  the  muscles, 
clothing  the  skeleton  from  head  to  foot. 

29.  The  muscles  are  the  lean  meat ; their  use  is  to 
produce  motion,  chiefly  of  different  parts  of  the  skeleton 
to  which  they  are  attached.  (See  plate-pages  1 and  2 
for  more  distinct  views  of  the  skeleton  and  muscles.) 

30.  Fig.  3 represents  (see  plate-pages  3 and  3*) 
the  nerves  extending  between  the  brain  and  every  other 
part  of  the  body. 

31.  The  nerves  are,  singly,  so  small  that  they 
cannot  be  seen  by  the  naked  eye ; of  course,  the  white 
pulpy  cords  represented  in  the  picture  are  bundles  of  the 
single  nerves,  that,  millions  in  number,  connect  every 
part  of  the  body  with  the  brain.  They  are  so  numerous, 
that  the  point  of  the  finest  cambric  needle  cannot  prick 
through  the  skin  without  piercing  one  or  more. 

32.  When  the  mind  wtsiles  to  move  any  part  of 
the  body,  all  that  is  necessary  for  it  to  do  is  to  send 


25.  Why  introduce  — ? 26.  What  does  — ? 27.  Where  is  — ? 28.  WTiat 

does  — ? 29.  What  — ? 30.  'Whatdoes— ? 31.  What  — ? 32.  What  neces- 

sary — ? 


INTKODU  CTORY, 


8 


PLATE  1. 


INTRODUCTORY,  9 

PLATE  2. 


INTRODUCTORY. 


11 


PLATE  5. 


12 


INTRODUCTORY. 


an  influence,  as  it  is  called,  from  the  brain  through  a 
nerve  to  the  muscles,  causing  them  to  contract  and 
relax,  and  thus  move  the  parts  of  the  skeleton  to  which 
they  grow. 

Remark. — The  words  “ contract  ” and  “ relax  ” have 
a peculiar  meaning.  When  a muscle  contracts  it  be- 
comes shorter ; and  when  it  relaxes  it  stops  contracting, 
and  can  be  easily  extended, 

33.  Illustration. — If  the  mind  wishes  to  raise  the 
hand,  it  sends  down  an  influence  to  a muscle  on  the 
front  part  of  the  upper  arm,  which  muscle,  by  shortening, 
draws  up  the  lower  arm.  This  action  of  the  muscle 
can  be  felt  by  grasping  the  front  part  of  the  upper  arm, 
and  then  raising  the  lower  arm : try  it. 

34.  Fig.  4 (plate-page  6)  represents  the  skin — a 
kind  of  bag  containing  the  three  other  parts,  protecting 
them,  and  forming  a beautiful  finish  or  surface  upon 
them.  It  serves  also  several  other  useful  purposes. 

35.  But  the  skeleton,  muscles,  and  nerves  must 
grow,  be  kept  warm,  and  in  good  repair,  for  which  they 
need  a constant  supply  of  blood. 

36.  Fig.  6 (plate-page  6)  represents  blood-tubes 
(see  plate-pages  5 and  5*)  extending  between  the  heart 
and  all  parts  of  the  body. 

37.  The  blood-tubes  are  tubes  of  three  different 
kinds — some  as  large  as  a man’s  thumb,  and  others  so 
small  that  they  cannot  be  seen  by  the  naked  eye,  and 
so  numerous  that  the  smallest  needle  cannot  prick  the 
skin  without  piercing  one  or  more,  and  causing  a flow 
of  blood. 

38.  The  eye  easily  teaches  that  a very  large 
part  of  the  body  and  some  whole  members  of  it  are 
made  of  the  four  kinds  of  organs  just  described. 

39.  Look  at  the  pictures,  Figs.  1,  2,  3,  4,  and  6, 


33.  How  does  the  mind  raise  the  hand  ? 34.  What  does  — ? 35.  What 

do  — need?  36.  What  does—?  37.  What  arc  — ? 38.  What  docs  — ? 

39.  What  learned  of  the  arm  by  a — ? 


INTRODUCTORY. 


13 


(plate-page  6,)  and  see  how  many  different  kinds  of 
organs  compose  an  arm. 

40.  By  running  our  eyes  across  those  five 


Figures  of  plate-page  6,  or  over  the  plate-pages  1,  2,  3, 
and  5,  we  shall  see  that  an  arm  is  composed  of  (Fig.  1) 
skeleton,  (Fig.  2)  muscles,  (Fig.  3)  nerves,  (Fig.  4)  skin, 
(Fig.  5)  blood-tubes  ; or  the 


Arm 


r Skeleton, 

Muscles, 

-<  Nerves , 

Skin, 

[ Blood-Tubes . 

Addition 


Skeleton, 
Muscles, 
Nerves , 

Skin, 

Blood-Tubes. 


Skeleton, 
Muscles, 
Nerves , 

Skin, 

Blood- Tubes. 


Arm.  Leg. 


41.  This  is  speaking  of  the  organs  of  the  arm 
in  the  order  of  their  use  or  action,  or  systematically  or 
Physiologically* 

42.  We  might  notice  these  organs  according  to 
their  positions,  or  Anatomically — as  skeleton,  muscles, 
skin  ; or  skin,  muscles,  skeleton  ; and  then  nerves  and 
blood-tubes  ; or  these  might  be  noticed  with  each  of 
the  kinds  of  larger  organs  in  which  they  are  found,  and 
of  which,  in  one  sense,  they  form  a part. 

43*  Why  both  the  nerves  and  blood-tubes 
should  be  extended  through  the  skeleton,  muscles, 
and  skin  so  numerously,  will  be  evident  from  Figs.  2 
and  3,  as  it  is  there  seen  that  the  nerves  and  blood-tubes 
connect  all  parts  with  two  centres  in  the  body. 

44.  Fig.  2 represents  a few  out  of  millions  of 
nerves  extending  between  the  various  parts  of  the  body 
and  the  brain  situated  in  the  head.  This  is  a back  view. 

45.  Fig.  3 represents  one  set  of  blood-tubes  called 
arteries,  leading  out  from  the  heart — a centre  situated 
in  the  chest — into  all  parts  of  the  body  ; another  set  of 
tubes  called  veins  (see  plate-page  5)  leads  the  blood 
back  from  all  parts  to  the  heart,  or  centre. 


40.  How  many  and  what  organs  shall  we  find  — ? 41.  In  what  order 

is  — ? 42.  How  — ? 43.  Why  — ? 44.  What  does  — ? 45.  What  docs  — ? 

What  is  said  of  another  set  of  blood-tubes  called  veins  ? 


14 


INTRODUCTORY. 


Fig.  2. 


INTRODUCTORY. 


15 


Fig.  3 illustrates  one 
class  of  blood  tubes, 
called  arteries,  com- 
mencing at  H,  the 
heart,  and  dividing 
and  subdividing,  ac- 
cording to  the  mem- 
bers, until  all  parts  ot 
the  body  are  reached, 
where  they  terminate 
in  the  next  class.  The 
capillaries  are  a net* 
work  of  hair-like  tubes, 
too  small  to  be  seen  by 
the  naked  eye,  into 
which  the  arteries  pour 
their  contents.  They 
are  more  numerous  in 
the  brain  than  in  any 
other  part.  From  the 
capillaries  the  veins 
commence  (see  PI.  5), 
and  uniting  together, 
and  also  receiving  the 
contents  of  the  fourth 
class  of  tubes,  they  at 
last  open  into  another 
part  of  the  heart,  from 
whence  the  arteries 
lead  out.  The  fourth 
class  of  tubes,  called 
lymphatics  (see  PI.  5*), 
commences  in  every 
part  except  the  brain 
and  nerves , and  open 
into  the  veins,  and 
thus  their  contents  find 
their  wTay  to  the  heart. 


46.  The  two  Figs.  2 and  3 show  very  plainly  the 
important  fact  that  there  are  two  centres  in  the  body, 
and  that  there  are  two  different  means,  (one,  tubes  or 
blood-vessels  ; the  other,  cords  or  nerves,)  connecting 
the  centres  with  all  parts  of  the  body. 


46.  What  do  — ? What  is  the  centre  in  the  Head,  with  which  all  the 
nerves  connect,  called  ? What  is  the  centre  at  II.,  Fig.  3,  from  which  the  great 
blood-tube  starts  out,  called  ? 


16 


INTRODUCTORY. 


INTRODUCTORY. 


17 


Fig.  6. 


47.  The  Figs.  1,  2,  and  4 of  plate-page  6 show 
that  all  the  outer  parts  of  the  body  are  composed  of 
skeleton,  muscles,  and  skin,  with  the  connecting  nerves 
and  blood-tubes. 

48.  We  will  illustrate  this  still  further  by 
several  Figures  representing  the  outer  parts — sides  or 
walls  of  the  head. 


47.  What  does  Fig.  1 (plate-page  6)  represent  ? What  does  Fig.  2 (plate- 
page  6)  represent  ? What  does  Fig.  4 (plate-page  6)  represent  ? What  do 
“ outer  parts  of  the  body”  include  ? 48.  How  shall  — ? 


18 


INTRODUCTORY. 


49.  Fig.  4 represents  a view  of  the  skull — the 
skeleton  of  the  Head.  The  upper  part  of  the  skull,  con- 
taining the  Brain,  as  in  a case  or  box,  is  called  the  Cra- 
nium ; the  lower  and  front  part,  forming  the  sockets 
of  the  eyes,  the  passages  of  the  nostrils,  and  the  cavity 
of  the  mouth,  is  called  the  Facium. 

50.  Fig.  5 represents  the  muscles  of  the  side  of 
the  head  and  face,  some  of  which  can  be  felt  under  the 
skin  when  they  cause  the  motions  for  which  they  are 
intended. 

51.  Fig.  6 represents,  in  a very  beautiful  manner, 
several  bundles  of  nerves  leading  from  the  skin  and 
the  muscles  just  below  it,  inward  to  the  great  centre 
where  the  mind  has  its  seat. 

52.  The  skin  also  is  represented  in  Fig.  6 at 
the  margin  of  the  picture,  as  if  the  skin  had  been  cut 
through  on  a line  with  the  centre  of  the  nose,  and  re- 
moved from  the  side  of  the  head  and  face. 

53.  Fig.  7 represents  the  skin  as  forming  the 
margin  of  the  picture ; 5,  6,  and  its  branches,  represent 
blood-tubes  proper ; while  the  small  beaded  net-work  of 
tubes,  and  the  small  bodies  with  which  they  are  con- 
nected in  the  neck,  represent  lymphatics,  or  white 
blood-tubes,  as  they  are  sometimes  called. 

54.  These  large,  beautiful  pictures  of  the 
walls  of  the  head  show  that,  like  the  arm,  the  Head- 
walls  are  composed  of  a skeleton,  muscles,  nerves,  skin, 
and  blood-tubes. 

55.  The  student  should  now  look  at  the  Figures 
of  plate  6,  and-  state  the  kinds  of  organs  composing  the 
lower  limbs,  trunk,  walls,  and  neck,  naming  each  kind 
distinctly,  and  writing  them  out,  as  in  case  of  the  arm. 

56.  The  student  should  make  a synopsis  of  the 
construction  of  the  walls  of  the  head,  the  neck,  the  walls 


49.  What  does  — ? 50.  What  does  — ? 51.  What  does  Fig  6 — ? 52.  — 

how?  53.  What  does  — ? 54.  What  do  — ? 55.  — do  what  ? 56.  Of  what  — ? 
What  does  this  synopsis  mean  ? 


INTRODUCTORY. 


19 


Fig.  7. 


Fig.  7 rep- 
resents a sec- 
tion of  the 
skin, the  right 
half  remov 
ed;  superficial 
Blood  - tubes 
of  the  Right 
Head ; the 
darker  net- 
work, veins ; 
the  beaded 
net-work  the 
lymphatics, 
connected  be- 
low the  ear 
with  small 
organs, called 
the  lymphat- 
ic glands. 


of  the  trunk,  the  lower  limbs,  the  upper  limbs,  (and  the 
larynx,)  thus : 


HEAD-WALLS, 

Neck, 

Truisk-walls, 
lower  limbs, 
upper  limbs, 
larynx, 


Skeleton, 
Muscles, 
Nerves , 

Skin, 

Blood-Tubes . 


Skeleton, 

Muscles, 

Nerves , 

Skin, 

Blood-  Tithes. 

Addition  . . . 

HEAD-WALLS. 


What  do  you  think  is  the  reason  for  writing  part  of  the  words  in  the  table 
without  any  capital  letters  ? What  can  you  construct  from  Skeleton,  Muscles, 
Nerves , Skin,  and  Blood-Tubes? 


20 


INTRODUCTORY. 


This  means,  that  the  parts  named  betore  the  first 
brace  are  each  composed  of  all  the  organs  mentioned 
after  the  last  brace.  Let  it  be  noticed,  that  head- 
walls  and  trunk-walls  are  in  different  type  from  the 
other  names,  so  also  are  nerves  and  blood-tubes. 


Skeleton, 
Muscles, 
Nerves , 

Skin, 

Blood-Tubes. 


Neck. 


Skeleton, 
Muscles, 
Nerves , 

Skin, 

Blood-Tubes. 


Skeleton, 

Muscles, 

Nerves, 

Skin, 

Blood-Tubes. 


Skeleton, 

Muscles, 

Nerves, 

Skin, 

Blood-Tubes. 


Skeleton, 
Muscles, 
Nerves , 

Skin, 

Blood-  Tubes . 


Trunk-walls,  lower  limbs,  upper  limbs.  larynx. 


57.  The  student  should  be  questioned,  and 
should  write  tables  upon  the  compositions  of  his  fingers, 
thumbs,  and  other  parts,  until  he  becomes  perfectly 
familiar  with  the  five  kinds  of  organs  that  form  such  a 
large  part  of  the  body,  and  where  they  are  to  be  found. 
He  should  commence  with  the  surface  of  his  arm,  and 
name  in  their  order  the  parts  to  be  found  in  a line 
through  its  centre  ; so  with  other  parts  of  the  body. 

58.  He  should  be  also  questioned  in  regard  to 
them,  so  that  he  will  become  familiar  with  their  mode 
and  order  of  action  ; that  is,  he  should  be  asked  the  use 
of  each  kind  of  organ  every  time  that  it  is  mentioned. 

59.  The  student  should  be  asked  how  large  a 
part  of  the  body,  in  size  or  weight,  these  five  kinds  of 
organs  compose.  He  can  judge  by  looking  over  the 
Figures  of  plate-page  6. 

60.  He  will  thus  perceive  that  a very  large 

PART  OF  THE  BODY  WAS  INTENDED  TO  PRODUCE  motion 

of  one  kind  or  another  ; for  muscles  are  intended  to 
produce  motion. 

61.  All  parts  of  the  body  have  been  intended 
for  active  use,  and  made  in  such  a manner  that  active 


56.  — what  ? What  should  be  noticed  ? Why  is  it  so  ? 57.  How 

should  —?  Name  the  parts  of  the  arm  in  their  order.  58.  How  should  — ? 
59.  What  should  — ? How  can  he  judge  ? 60.  — what  ? 61.  For  what  — ? 


INTRODUCTORY. 


21 


use  keeps  them  in  the  best  health,  and  every  way  in 
the  best  condition  for  use.* 

62.  It  is  natural  therefore  to  conclude  that  a 
great  deal  of  muscular  exercise  will  be  necessary  to 
keep  in  health  so  large  a portion  of  the  body  as  has 
been  made  solely  for  motion. 

63.  If  the  student  has  rightly  studied  this 
LONG  ILLUSTRATION  AND  ACCOMPANYING  PICTURES,  he 
has  learned  a great  deal  of  Physiology,  Anatomy,  and 
Hygiene — much  more  than  he  is  aware.  There  is,  in 
fact,  a whole  volume  of  Physiology  and  Anatomy  in 
plate-page  6.  It  expresses  facts  of  great  importance 
to  remember. 

64.  The  intention  was  to  present  by  this  illus- 
tration, in  an  attractive  manner,  a brief  and  striking 
outline-idea  of  the  chief  parts  of  the  body,  and  famil- 
iarize the  student  with  them  in  the  outset,  as  well 
as  to  show  him  how  well  and  systematically  he  can 
classify  them. 

65.  It  was  also  thought  to  be  especially  im- 
portant to  have  him  perceive,  that  each  part  is  made 


* Remake. — There  is  a great  difference  between  the  expressions  health 
and  the  best  condition  for  use  ; if  the  latter  is  true  of  a jjart,  the  former  also 
must  be  ; but  a part  may  be  in  health  and  not  in  a condition  for  its  desirable 
use.  Upon  this  matter  a very  incorrect  idea  prevails,  since  it  is  usually 
thought,  that  if  a part  is  in  health,  it  is  in  the  beet  condition  for  use,  and 
also,  that  the  better  the  condition  for  use  in  which  any  part  is,  so  much  the 
more  healthy  it  is ; and,  therefore,  it  is  thought  that  bringing  a part  into  this 
better  condition  improves  health.  But  the  right  arm  of  the  blacksmith  is  no 
more  healthy  than  his  left  arm  ; both  are  healthy,  but  the  former  in  the  better 
condition  for  strength.  Therefore,  only  a certain  degree  of  activity  is  neces- 
sary to  health  ; and  the  bounds  of  health  have  a great  latitude  within  which 
parts  may  be  adapted  to  the  various  conditions  required  of  them  for  use. 
Indeed,  sometimes,  by  bringing  part  s into  a condition  that  is  necessary  for  use, 
the  health  may  be  injured.  For  example  : a man  in  making  himself  very 
strong,  might  take  so  much  of  his  time  and  of  his  blood  in  exercising  his 
muscles,  that  other  parts  must  suffer. 


62.  What  about  exercise  ? 63.  What  has  been  learned  — ? 64.  What  was 

it  — ? 65.  What  was — ? Remark.— What  is  the  difference  between  the  ex- 
pressions health  and  best  condition  for  use  ? 


22 


INTRODUCTORY. 


on  account  of  a use  for  which  it  is  necessary,  and  made 
in  a way  that  will  exactly  fulfil  its  use ; since — 

66.  If  a student  is  to  study  most  successfully, 

AND  WITH  GREATEST  INTEREST,  THE  VARIOUS  PARTS  OF 

the  body,  he  must  first  seek  to  know  their  use,  and 
what  it  is  desirable  they  should  do  ; then  he  can  easily 
learn  how  they  are  adapted  to  do  it,  and  how  to  keep 
them  in  such  a condition  that  they  can  do  it  most 
perfectly. 

67.  This  is  the  true  way  in  which  to  study  the 
body,  giving  all  the  advantage  of  learning  it  the  most 
completely,  and  also  the  still  higher  advantage  of  im- 
proving the  mind  to  the  highest  degree. 

Remark. — If  a boy  should  say  he  was  about  to 
make  something,  and  should  ask  what  he  should  make 
it  of,  and  how  he  should  make  it,  the  reply  would  be  a 
question,  asking  .him  what  that  which  he  intended  to 
make  was  to  be,  or  what  it  was  to  be  for.  If  he  should 
be  asked  what  it  was  to  be,  the  object  would  be  to  learn 
what  it  was  for  ; for  if  he  should  reply  that  it  was  to  be 
a bow,  every  one  would  know  what  it  was  to  be  for? 
viz.,  to  shoot  with  ; to  know  what  it  was  to  be  for, 
would  be  necessary,  in  order  to  answer  him  correctly. 
He  could  then  be  told  what  he  must  get,  and  how  he 
must  shape  it ; he  would  be  told  that  he  must  get  some 
tough,  springy,  or  elastic  wood,  like  hickory,  that  could 
be  very  much  bent  without  breaking.  If  the  use  of 
anything  is  not  known,  what  it  is  must  first  be  studied, 
in  order  to  learn  what  it  may  be  for — and,  perhaps,  ex- 
periments must  be  tried ; but  if  its  use  is  known,  we  can 
best  learn  hoAV  it  is  made,  and  how  it  is  to  be  used,  if 
we  are  first  told  its  use,  as  we  can  then  experience 
much  pleasure  in  learning  the  adaptation  of  its  struc- 
ture to  its  use. 


66.  — what  must  he  do  ? 67.  What  is  — ? Remark. — What  is  first  neces- 
sary to  make  anything  ? Which  do  we  desire  to  learn  first — the  use  or  the 
structure  of  anything  ? 


ANALYSIS  OF  MAN  INTO  MIND  AND  BODY. 


23 


CHAPTER  II. 

ANALYSIS  OF  MAN  INTO  MIND  AND  BODY. 

68.  The  fiest  thing  to  be  leaened  about  the 
body  is,  that  it  is  made  for  the  use  of  the  mind,  to  which 
it  is  a servant. 

69.  Many  seem  to  think  the  body  is  the  master  and 
the  mind  the  servant,  for  they  expend  all  their  time  and 
money  in  adorning  the  body,  and  neglect  their  minds. 
They  seem  to  think  the  houses  they  live  in  and  the 
clothes  they  wear  are  of  much  greater  importance  than 
the  thoughts  they  have  or  the  words  they  speak. 

70.  I hope  to  show  eveey  child  that  the  common 
idea  is  wrong,  by  showing  him  that  every  part  of  the 
body  is  really  made  for  the  purpose  of  serving  the  mind. 

71.  The  mind  caees  foe  the  body,  in  order  that  it 
may  serve  the  mind  the  better ; and  the  better  the  body  is 
cared  for,  the  better  can  the  mind  use  it  for  any  purpose. 

72.  It  must  theeefoee  be  foolish  to  spend  time 
and  money  on  the  body,  and  leave  the  mind  in  ignorance ; 
quite  as  foolish  as  it  would  be  for  a people  to  well  feed, 
finely  clothe,  and  securely  shelter  the  servant  of  a king, 
and  leave  the  king  himself  in  abject  poverty  ; or  to 
bestow  great  honor  on  the  soldiers  of  an  army,  and 
leave  the  general  a beggar. 


What  is  the  topic  of  Chapter  II.  ? 68.  What  is  — ? 69.  What  do  — ? 

70.  What  does  the  author  — ? 71.  Why  should  — ? 72.  How  is  it  foolish  to 
spend  time  ? 


24 


ANALYSIS  OF  MAN  INTO  MIND  AND  BODY. 


73.  Therefore,  the  first  proposition  in  phy- 
siology is,  that  every  person  has  a mind  and  body ; or, 
in  brief, 

Man  = Mind  + Body : or  Man  = j 

74.  The  last  expression  might  be  read  : Every 
man  (meaning  all  mankind,  women  and  children  in- 
cluded) equals  a mind  and  body  added ; or  man  em- 
braces both  mind  and  body. 

75.  An  exercise  in  addition  and  subtraction 
may  be  made  by  writing  one  word  above  the  other,  as 
below : 


Mind 

Man 

Man 

Body 

Mind 

Body 

Addition  . , 

, . . 

Subtraction  . 

. . . 

— 

Man 

Body 

Mind 

76.  Thbt 

SECOND 

PROPOSITION 

is,  that 

the  body 

should  be  studied  on  account  of  the  mind,  and  for  the 
purpose  of  learning  how  the  body  and  all  its  parts  can 
be  best  made  to  serve  the  mind,  and  make  it  more  useful 
and  happier. 

77.  To  LEARN  HOW  TO  MAKE  THE  BODY  MOST  USEFUL 
TO  THE  MIND,  WE  MUST  LEARN,  1st,  the  USeS  of  the 
various  parts  of  the  body ; 2d,  how  they  are  construct- 
ed ; 3d,  how  to  keep  them  in  such  a condition  that  they 
will  be  best  adapted  to  fulfil  their  purposes. 

78.  Our  study  has  therefore  three  branches — 
departments  or  divisions  ; and  names  have  been  given 
to  each. 

79.  Physiology  is  the  name  given  to  that  branch 
that  treats  upon  the  uses  of  the  parts  of  living 
things. 

80.  Human  Physiology  treats  therefore  upon  the 
uses  of  the  different  parts  of  the  Human  Body. 

81.  Anatomy  is  the  name  given  to  that  branch  that 


73.  What  — ? 74.  How  might  the  table  below  be  read  ? 75.  How  may  — ? 

76.  What  is  — ? 77.  — what  ? 78.  — how  many  branches  ? 79.  What  is  — ? 
80.  — treats  upon  what  ? 81.  What  is  — ? 


ANALYSIS  OF  MAN  INTO  MIND  AND  BODY. 


25 


treats  upon  the  structure,  or  the  composition  and  con- 
nections, of  the  various  parts  of  living  things. 

82.  Human  Anatomy  treats  therefore  upon  the 
structure  of  different  parts  of  the  Human  Body. 

83.  Hygiene  is  the  name  given  to  that  branch  that 
treats  upon  the  manner  of  keeping  the  different  parts 
of  living  things  in,  not  only  health,  but  a condition  best 
adapted  to  use. 

84.  Human  Hygiene  therefore  treats  upon  the  man- 
ner of  keeping  the  different  parts  of  the  Human  Body 
in  the  best  condition  for  appropriate  use — certainly  the 
most  important  subject  that  can  concern  the  mind  of 
any  person,  since  each  person  is  himself  interested  in 
the  matter  beyond  what  he  can  be  in  anything  else. 

85.  Synoptically,  or  summed  up  in  the  table-form, 
the  three  divisions  of  the  study  of  the  Human  Body  are, 


Remark. — As  there  are  two  other  kinds  of  living 
things  besides  man,  viz.,  animals  and  vegetables,  there 
are  two  other  kinds  of  Physiology,  Anatomy,  and 
Hygiene,  viz. : 


When  the  different  parts  of  these  are  compared  to- 
gether, the  science  is  called  Comparative  Physiology, 
Anatomy,  &c.  * 


* I have  seen  it  stated,  that  Comparative  Anatomy  is  the  name  of  the 
science  that  treats  upon  the  structure  of  animals  ; but  that  is  incorrect,  as 
any  dictionary  will  show  : not  to  te^ch  what  is  not  known  is  tolerable,  but 
to  teach  error  when  the  truth  is  known  is  inexcusable  ; especially  is  it  so  to 
make  such  egregious  blunders  as  that  mentioned  above. 


82.  — treats  upon  what?  83.  What  is  — ? 84.  — treats  upon  what? 

85.  Concisely  express  the  three  divisions  of  our  study.  Remark,— Mention 
other  kinds  of  Physiology,  Anatomy,  and  Hygiene, 


Human 


Physiology  ; what  the  parts  are  for. 
Anatomy ; how  made  or  constructed. 
Hygiene  ; how  kept  in  good  condition. 


2 


26 


BODY  ANALYZED  INTO  SIX  MEMBERS. 


CHAPTER  III. 

BODY  ANALYZED  INTO  SIX  MEMBERS. 

86.  If  we  look  at  the  body  as  it  is  standing 

BEFORE  US,  OUR  MINDS  NATURALLY,  and  without  effort, 
divide  it  into  parts  called  members. 

87.  The  central  member,  sometimes  wrongly  call- 
ed the  body,  is  the  Trunk,  on  which,  not  in  which,  we 
put  our  clothes. 

88.  The  Trunk  has  limbs  growing  to  it,  but  not  ex- 
actly as  limbs  grow  out  from  the  trunk  of  a tree.  The 
four  limbs  being  alike,  in  some  respects,  are  called  by 
the  common  name  limbs;  but  as  twro  differ  from  the 
other  two,  they  are  called  upper  and  lower  limbs;  and 
one  of  each  being  on  each  side,  it  is  also  called  right  or 
left.  This  is  classifying. 

89.  There  is  also  to  be  seen  growing  upwards 
from  the  Trunk  a short  column  called  the  Neck,  on 
the  top  of  which  rests  the  Head. 

90.  The  body  therefore  appears  to  be  con^ 
structed  of  four  kinds  of  members — the  Trunk,  limbs, 
Neck,  and  Head.  The  Neck  is  sometimes  considered 
as  an  extension  of  the  Trunk,  in  which  case  the  mem- 
bers would  be  of  only  three  kinds — Trunk,  limbs,  and 
Head. 


What  is  the  topic  of  Chapter  III.  ? What  of  previous  chapters  ? 86.  — do 
what  ? 87.  What  is  — ? 88.  How  many  limbs  — ? 89.  What  is  there  — ? 

90.  IIow  does  — ? If  the  Neck  is  part  of  the  Trunk,  how  many  members? 


BODY  ANALYZED  INTO  SIX  MEMBERS. 


27 


91.  Usually,  the  upper  and  lower  limbs  are 
considered  as  two  kinds  of  members  ; as  explained 
hereafter,  it  is  also  desirable  to  have  a part  found  in 
the  Neck,  called  the  larynx,  considered  as  a distinct 
member. 

92.  The  body  in  this  work  will  therefore  be 
considered  as  constructed  of  six  members — Trunk, 
lower  limbs,  upper  limbs,  Neck,  Head,  and  larynx. 

93.  In  what  order  shall  the  members  be  con- 
sidered ? is  now  the  important  question.  They  should 
be  studied  in  the  order  of  their  use.  But  how  are  we 
to  learn  the  order  of  their  use — which  member  is  master, 
and  which  members  are  servants  ? and  are  these  all 
servants  directly  to  one,  or  are  some  servants  to  others, 
and  some  independent? 

94.  In  one  view  the  Trunk  may  be  considered 
as  the  member  on  account  of  which  all  the  rest  were 
needed  and  made  : the  lower  limbs  to  carry  it ; the 
upper  limbs  to  feed  it,  and  the  Head  to  show  where, 
and  to  plan  how,  to  obtain  food. 

95.  Some  persons  do,  so  to  speak,  allow  the 
Trunk  to  become  the  master  of  the  other  members ; 
but,  like  fire,  it  is  a very  good  servant,  but  very  bad 
master. 

96.  Either  the  Trunk  or  the  Head  must  be  the 
master,  if  there  is  any,  because  those  are  the  only  mem- 
bers that  are  centres,  having  connection  with  all  other 
parts.  (See  Figs.  2 and  3.) 

97.  If  we  try  the  experiment  of  cutting  the 

LARGE  NERVE,  FlG.  2,  CONNECTING  THE  BRAIN  IN  THE 
Head  with  the  lower  limbs,  all  power  to  move 
the  limb,  and  all  sensation  in  it,  is  lost ; thus,  if  the 
foot  of  the  person  should  be  pricked,  or  a coal  of 
fire  dropped  on  it,  he  would  not  feel  it,  and  could 


91.  — as  what?  92.  How  will — ? 93.  — ? 94.  — as  what?  95.  What 

do  — ? 96.  Why  must  — ? 97.  What  effects  will  he  produced  — ? Have  you 
ever  seen  any  person  in  whom  an  accident  had  tested  this  experiment  ? 


28 


BODY  ANALYZED  INTO  SIX  MEMBERS. 


not  move  his  foot  if  he  should  see  that  it  was  burning ; 
but — 

98.  If  the  large  Blood-Tubes  connecting  the 

HEART  IN  THE  TRUNK  WITH  THE  LOWER  LIMB  should  be 

cut,  neither  loss  of  power  to  produce  motion  nor  sensa- 
tion would  be  instantly  experienced. 

Remark. — These  experiments  can  be  tried  purposely 
in  an  animal,  or  the  same  facts  shown  in  case  of  accident 
to  a man. 

99.  These  simple  experiments  fully  prove  two  facts  : 
1st,  the  great  fact  that  the  mind  has  its  seat,  throne,  or 
home  in  the  Head  ; 2d,  the  lesser  fact,  that  the  office  of 
the  nerves  is  to  connect  parts  of  the  body  with  the 
brain,  in  order  that  the  mind  may  control  and  be  acted 
on  by  them. 

100.  This  great  fact  is  the  most  important  in  the 
whole  study,  enabling  us  to  learn  all  the  rest  with  in- 
terest and  satisfaction,  since  we  have  only  to  ask  what 
the  mind  requires  to  do,  or  to  have  done,  in  order  to 
learn  why  other  parts  must  be  added  to  the  Head,  and 
what  they  must  be. 

101.  This  great  fact  also  makes  certain  that 
the  Head  is  the  head-member  of  the  body,  and  to  which 
the  Trunk  even  must  take  the  place  of  servant.  We 
will  now  learn  in  what  order  the  members  should  be 
arranged. 

102.  One  of  the  first  requirements  of  the  mind 
is  knowledge. 

103.  For  the  mind  to  gain  knowledge,  the  Head 
must  be  furnished  with  instruments  for  hearing,  seeing? 
smelling,  tasting,  and  touching  objects. 

104.  When  furnished  with  ears,  eyes,  nose, 
mouth,  and  skin,  the  Head  must  be  carried  about. 

105.  As  most  of  the  organs  of  the  Head  are  very 


98.  What  effect  if  we  cut  the — I 99.  What  two  facts  does  cutting  the 
nerves  and  blood-tubes  prove  ? 100.  What  said  of  — ? 101.  What  does  — ? 

102.  What  is  — ? 103.  Wbat  needed  — ? 104.  — what  to  be  done  ? 


BODY  ANALYZED  INTO  SIX  MEMBERS. 


29 


must  be  made  for  carrying  it  about 
of  its  parts  being  injured  by  jars. 


delicate,  provision 
without  any  danger 


Fig.  8. 


Fig.  9. 


100.  Fig.  8 represents  a head  on  its  travels,  sup- 
ported first  by  a curved  column  composed  of  solid 
pieces  with  elastic  cushions  between  them,  resting  upon 
a broad  ring,  to  each  side  of  which  the  lower  limbs  are 
attached.  The  bones  themselves  are  also  filled  with 


106.  What  does — ? Can  you  see  the  thin  cushions  in  Fig.  9?  Will  a 
tumbler  sound  as  loudly,  if  struck  when  full  of  water,  as  it  will  when  empty  ? 
Does  the  marrow  in  the  hones  have  the  effect  of  the  water  in  the  tumbler? 


30 


BODY  ANALYZED  INTO  SIX  MEMBERS. 


protective  marrow,  so  that  when  the  foot  strikes  the 
ground  very  little  of  the  jar  felt  by  the  foot  passes  up 
to  the  Head,  within  which  there  are  various  means  to 
protect  its  delicate  organs  from  the  jars  that  do  reach  it. 

107.  To  keep  this  column  upright  when  desirable, 
and  to  easily  control  its  motions  when  it  should  be 
curved,  long  levers,  called  ribs,  have  been  applied  to 
each  side ; these  curve  round  to  the  front,  and  are  on 
each  side  fastened  to  a bone  in  the  centre  called  the 
breast-bone,  or  Sternum,  the  whole  forming  a conical, 
basket-like  frame,  or  skeleton  of  the  Chest,  as  the  upper 
part  of  the  Trunk  is  called. 

108.  Fig.  9 represents  a side  view  of  the  frame, 
or  skeleton  of  the  Trunk,  while 

Fig.  10. 


109.  Fig.  10  represents  a front  view  of  the  skele- 
ton of  the  Chest. 


107.  What  is  necessary  — ? Where  is  the  breast-bone  ? What  is  the  upper 
part  of  the  Trunk  called  ? How  much  does  the  Chest  include  ? 109.  What 

does  — ? 


BODY  ANALYZED  INTO  SIX  MEMBERS.  31 

110.  Plate-page  2 represents  muscles  stretching 
from  the  limbs  below  to  the  broad  ring  at  the  bottom 
of  the  Trunk,  and  from  the  ring  up  to  the  ribs ; also 
between  them  up  to  the  column  above  the  Trunk,  and 
to  the  Head,  forming  so  many  stays  to  sustain  the 
column,  when  necessary,  or  to  curve  it  into  any  other 
position. 

111.  Thus  the  Head  has  need  of  and  is  supplied 
with  a Neck,  Trunk,  and  lower  limbs. 

112.  But  while  travelling  in  search  of  knowl- 
edge, the  mind  will  want  to  examine  many  things, 
and,  for  the  purpose  of  handling  them,  must  be  supplied 
with  hands,  which,  to  do  much,  must  be  placed  at  the 
outer  ends  of  long  flexible  arms.  Hence  the  upper 
limbs,  for  the  structure  of  which  see  plate-page  6. 

113.  One  thing  more  will  be  needed  : the  mind 
requires  to  ask  questions  and  to  answer  them,  for  which 
purpose  it  must  have  the  means  of  talking. 

114.  For  talking  there  will  be  required  a bellows 
to  take  in  and  blow  out  air;  this  is  provided  in  the 
Chest;  but  the  air,  as  it  is  blown  out  of  the  bellows, 
must  be  made  to  produce  sounds ; and  for  this  purpose 
there  is  a carious  instrument,  forming  a small  part  of 
the  windpipe.  It  can  be  usually  seen,  but  always  felt 
in  the  upper  part  of  the  Neck,  as  an  enlargement  of 
the  windpipe  ; it  is  commonly  called  Adam’s  apple  ; but 
its  proper  name  is  larynx. 

115.  When  we  simply  breathe  the  air  through 
the  larynx,  no  sound  is  produced ; but  when  we  blow 
it  through  suddenly,  and  with  force,  sounds  are  caused, 
and,  by  the  assistance  of  the  mouth,  speech  is  pro- 
duced. 

116.  Therefore,  to  gain  knowledge  the  mind  re- 
quires six  members ; and  of  six  the  body  is  composed, 


110.  What  does — ? Can  you  keep  upright  or  bend  the  spinal  column? 
111.  What  has  — ? 112.  — what?  113.  What  — ? 114.  What  needed—? 

Put  the  finger  on  the  larynx.  115.  What  effect  — ? 116.  What  required  — ? 


32 


BODY  ANALYZED  INTO  SIX  MEMBERS. 


as  has  been  said,  and  as  all  can  see.  The  order  in  which 
they  are  to  be  mentioned  is  as  follows  : 


The  Body  = six  Members 


' HEAD 
Neck 
Trunk 
lower  limbs 
upper  limbs 
larynx 


117.  Upon  examination  of  the  necessities  of  the 
six  members,  W’e  shall  find  that  they  must  be  kept  at  a 
proper  temperature,  for  as  soon  as  they  are  too  warm, 
or  too  cold,  they  do  not  work  well ; they  must  also  be 
kept  in  repair,  &c. ; for  all  of  which  an  abundance  of 
Blood  is  necessary,  and  must  be  prepared. 

118.  Will  not  another  member  be  required  to 
make  Blood  ? No ; for  what  is  necessary  for  making 
blood,  and  for  forcing  it  through  the  Blood-tubes,  will 
exactly  fill  the  otherwise  empty  Trunk-walls. 

119.  Figs.  11  and  12  represent  a part  of  the  Con- 
tents of  the  Trunk- walls,  the  front  portions  of  which 
have  been  removed  to  show  the  Heart,  Lungs,  Stomach, 
Liver,  and  Second  Stomach,  as  they  would  naturally 
appear  in  their  places. 

Remark. — One  of  the  most  curious  things  in  the 
body  is  the  exact,  proportionate  size  of  the  Trunk-walls 
and  their  Contents  to  each  other,  and  to  the  body  to 
which  they  belong. 

120.  It  is  not  to  be  denied  that,  as  it  is  the  duty 
of  the  Trunk  to  prepare  and  circulate  an  abundance  of 
blood  through  all  the  other  members,  so  also  is  it  their 
duty  to  supply  the  Trunk  with  an  abundance  of  good 
Air,  Water,  and  Food,  from  which  to  prepare  good 
Blood 

121.  Indeed,  one  of  the  most  important  uses  of 
knowledge  is  to  know  how,  in  the  cheapest  manner, 


116.  How  should  the  members  be  mentioned  ? 117.  — what  to  be  neces- 
sary ? 118.  — ? 119.  What  does  — ? 120.  What  — of  the  trunk  ? 121.  What 
is  — ? 


BODY  ANALYZED  INTO  SIX  MEMBERS. 


33 


to  supply  the  best  qualities  of  Air,  Water,  and  Food, 
and  to  do  whatever  else  is  necessary  to  the  production 
of  good  Blood. 


Fig.  11.  Fig.  12. 


122.  The  science  and  art  of  cooking,  and  indeed 
all  of  housekeeping — such  as  cleanliness,  ventilation, 
clothing,  &c.,  that  pertains  to  preserving  and  pro- 
moting, or  restoring  health — should  be  held  in  the 
highest  honor  and  esteem,  as  nothing  promotes  more 
the  welfare  of  mankind ; but  it  should  always  be  kept 
in  view  that  the  reason  why  the  welfare  of  mankind 
is  thus  served,  is  because  good  Blood  is  essential  to  the 
proper  action  of  the  mind. 


121.  Of  what  is  Blood  made?.  Where  is  the  Heart  (II)  situated  in  Fig.  11  ? 
In  which  Fig.,  11  or  12,  is  the  Heart  (H)  seen  the  most  fully  ? In  which  Fig. 
are  the  ribs  cast  hack  the  farthest  ? 122.  Why  should  — be  held  in  honor  ? 

2* 


34 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  SIX  MEMBERS 


CHAPTER  IY. 

ANALYSIS  OF  THE  SIX  MEMBERS  INTO  TWO  MECHANISMS. 

123.  The  subjects  of  this  chapter  are  among 
the  most  interesting  and  important  that  will  be  found 
in  this  book.  It  is  doubtful  if,  in  the  whole  range  of 
studies,  any  ideas  can  be  found  more  valuable  than  those 
suggested  here,  if  taken  in  all  their  bearings. 

124.  Several  facts  have  been  mentioned  in 
previous  chapters,  and  others  shown,  that  will  appear 
very  curious  when  brought  out  and  compared,  and  will 
compel  our  minds  to  come  to  some  very  important 
conclusions. 

125.  First  Fact.— It  has  been  shown  by  Figs.  2 
and  3,  that  there  are  tw~o  centres  in  the  body,  each  con- 


Fig.  13.  Fig.  14. 


nected  with  all  parts  of  it,  in  which  the  divisions  of  the 
Nerves  and  Blood-tubes  are  so  similar  that  the  same 
language  may  be  used  for  each.  (See  paragraphs  31 
and  37.) 


WThat  is  the  subject  of  Chapter  IV.  ? 123.  What  said  of  — ? 124.  What  do 

— show?  125.  What  — ? What  says  if  31  — ? Does  Fig.  13  illustrate  If  31 
well  ? What  said  in  H 37  ? Is  if  37  well  illustrated  by  Fig.  14  ? 


INTO  TWO  MECHANISMS. 


35 


126.  Second  Fact. — The  scholar  has  doubtless 
noticed,  that  each  of  the  two  members — the  Head  and 
the  Trunk — have  walls  and  contents,  viz. : 

tt_4_  _ j Walls  Trn-.Tr  — (Walls 

Head  | Contents  of  walls  1 ( Contents  of  walls 

127.  Third  Fact. — We  breathe  air,  drink  water, 
and  eat  food,  into  the  Trunk : while  we  hear,  see, 
smell,  and  taste,  through  the  Head.  This  fact  leads  us 
to  the — 

128.  Fourth  Fact.— The  Trunk  receives  material 
things,  viz.,  such  as  can  be  handled  and  weighed,  while 
all  the  operations  in  the  Head  are  upon  that  which 
is  immaterial,  viz.,  cannot  be  handled  nor  weighed 
— thoughts,  feelings,  sensations,  volitions,  &c.  How 
very,  very,  very  different  the  two  are  ! Stop  a moment, 
and  think  over  the  idea. 

129.  Fifth  Fact. — From  the  Head  an  immaterial 
influence  is  exerted  upon  all  parts  through  the  nerves , 
hence  called  Nervous  Influence  (yet  no  man  really 
knows  anything  of  consequence  about  its  character)  : 
while  from  the  Trunk  there  is  poured  through  the 
Blood-tubes  into  all  parts  a current  of  vital,  material 
fluid— the  Blood — that  we  know  nearly  everything 
about. 

To  and  from  HEAD  flows  immaterial  Nervous 
Influence . 

To  and  from  Trunk  flows  material  Blood . 

130.  Sixth  Fact. — It  is  also  evident,  first,  that 
every  part  has  a use  ; and,  second,  must  be  kept  in  a 
condition  fit  for  use. 

131.  Seventh  Fact. — Every  part  is  used,  or  brought 
into  use  or  action,  by  means  of  Nervous  Influence  ex- 
erted through  the  nerves ; and  is  kept  in  a condition  fit 


126.  What  has  — ? 127.  Into  wliat  do  — ? What  do  we  do  through  the 

Head  ? 128.  What  does  ? What  is  said  of  the  operations  in  the  Head  ? 

129.  What  goes  — ? From  the  Trunk  ? 130.  What  — ? 13H.  How  is  — ? 


36 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  SIX  MEMBERS 


for  use  by  means  of  the  Blood  poured  through  the 
Blood-tubes.  For  example  (plate-page  6) : the  arm  is 
constructed  of  a framework  (Fig.  1),  and  of  muscles 
(Fig.  2),  which  are  brought  into  action  through  the 
nerves  (Fig.  3),  the  whole  being  covered  with  skin 
(Fig.  4),  which  can  also  cause  sensation  through  the 
nerves ; while,  in  the  second  place,  Blood-tubes  (Fig.  6) 
are  interwoven  through  each  organ — skeleton,  muscle, 
and  skin — in  order  that  the  Blood  may  keep  them  in  a 
good  condition  for  use. 

132.  Eighth  Fact. — A few  orderly  experiments, 
or  the  answers  to  a few  questions,  will  show  that 
over  some  parts  of  the  body  the  mind  has  perfect  con- 
trol, while  over  other  parts  it  can  exert  no  direct 
control  ; and  the  latter  will  be  found  to  be  those  parts 
which  are  concerned  in  supplying  the  organs  with 
Blood. 

133.  Can  the  mind  move  the  Head?  Yes.  Can  it 
control  the  action  of  the  Heart  ? No.  Can  it  bend  the 
Neck?  Yes.  Can  it  stop  the  breath?  No.  Can  it 
bend  the  walls  of  the  Trunk  ? Yes.  Can  it  cause  the 
Stomach  to  act?  No.  Can  it  move  the  lower  limbs  ? 
Yes.  Can  it  control  the  action  of  the  Liver  ? No.  Can 
it  raise  or  lower  the  arms  ? Yes.  Can  it  excite  the 
Kidneys  to  action  ? No.  Can  it  exercise  the  larynx  at 
pleasure  ? Yes.  Has  it  direct  power  over  the  Second 
Stomach  ? No. 

134.  Bring  together  those  parts  to  which  the 
answer  is  yes.  The  mind  can  control  the  Head,  Neck, 
walls  of  the  Trunk,  lower  limbs,  upper  limbs,  and 
larynx.  These,  therefore,  are  called  voluntary. 

135.  Bring  together  those  parts  to  which  the 
answer  is  no.  The  mind  cannot  directly  control  the 
Heart,  Lungs,  Stomach,  Liver,  Kidneys,  or,  in  short,  any 


131.  How  is  each  pari  kept  in  condition  ? Describe  the  arm  as  shown  in 
plate-page  6.  132.  — what  ? 133.  Try  and  see  if  you  can  control  the  parts  as 
stated.  134.  What  arc  those  parts  — ? 135.  What  are  those  parts  — ? 


INTO  TWO  MECHANISMS. 


37 


of  the  Contents  of  the  Trunk-walls ; nor  can  the  mind 
control  the  Blood-tubes.  These,  therefore,  are  called 
involuntary. 

136.  All  these  facts  show  very  clearly  that  the 
body  is  constructed  of  two  mechanisms — one  directly 
connected  with  the  Brain  and  Mind,  and  directly  con- 
trolled by  the  Mind,  while  another  is  added  to  that,  and 
is  not  directly  under  the  control  of  the  Mind. 

Remark. — By  a mechanism  is  meant  several  parts 
arranged  to  work  together  in  producing  a result.  In 
a clock  several  parts  work  together  to  move  the  hands. 
If  it  strikes,  there  is  another  set  of  parts  working  to- 
gether to  cause  the  striking.  In  a large  factory  there  is 
a great  mechanism,  or  many  small  ones,  working  to- 
gether to  produce  the  articles  made  there  , and,  to  keep 
the  different  parts  of  the  producing  mechanisms  in  re- 
pair, a machine-shop  or  secondary  mechanism  is  added 
to  the  factory ; while,  to  keep  it  warm  or  cool,  some 
other  mechanism  will  be  necessary,  and  will  be  added. 
Thus,  in  the  body,  the  Contents  of  the  Trunk-walls  are 
a machine-shop  and  heating  mechanism  for  repairing 
and  keeping  warm  or  cool  the  mechanism  used  by  the 
mind. 

137.  The  members  of  the  body  may  therefore 
be  divided,  or  classed  into  two  mechanisms,  as  follows : 


Head 
Neck 
Trunk 
lower  limbs 
upper  limbs 
larynx 


Head 

Neck 

Trunk-walls  + Contents  of  Trunk-walls, 
lower  limbs  and  the  Blood-Tubes 

upper  limbs 
w larynx 


138.  These  mechanisms,  or  groups  of  parts,  may 
be  called  the  M,  or  Mental  or  Prime : and  the  B,  or 
Blood-making,  or  Secondary,  as  follows  : 


136.  What  do  — ? How  many  mechanisms  in  a striking  clock?  What  is 
said  of  a factory  ? 137.  How  may  — ? What  does  the  Trunk  = ? 138.  What 

may  — ? 


38 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  SIX  MEMBERS 


Head 

Neck 

Trunk-walls 
lower  limbs 
upper  limbs 
larynx 

Contents  of  ) 
Trunk-walls  f 


= (M)  Mental  or  Prime  Mechanism 


= (B)  Blood-making,  or  Secondary  Mechanism 


139.  The  greater  importance  of  the  Mental 
Mechanism  will  be  clearly  felt,  by  noticing  the  in- 
teresting fact  that  this  mechanism  is  double — right  and 
left  throughout. 

140.  A look  at  the  Figures  of  plate-page  6 will 
show  that  the  Mental  Mechanism  is  double,  for  the 
pictures  of  the  skeleton,  muscles,  and  nerves,  show  the 
fact  clearly. 

141.  The  skin  even,  that  as  an  external  covering 
seems  to  show  no  signs  of  being  right  and  left,  will, 
upon  being  pricked,  in  case  of  certain  diseases,  reveal 
the  fact  that  it  is  also  right  and  left ; for  on  one  side 
of  an  exact  middle  line — much  more  exact  than  could  be 
drawn  with  a pencil — the  skin  being  pricked  will  not 
cause  any  pain,  while  on  the  other  side  of  the  line  the 
prick  may  be  very  painful.  The  reason  is,  that  the  nerves 
of  either  side  never  cross  the  central  line  in  the  skin 
for  the  smallest  distance  ; and  if  those  on  one  side 
are  so  diseased  that  they  cannot  act,  pain  will  not  be 
caused  by  pricking  the  skin  of  that  side,  while  those 
of  the  other  side  may  be  perfect,  and  will  cause  pain  if 
pricked. 

142.  Fig.  15  represents  a front  view  of  the  muscles 
of  the  face  after  the  skin  is  removed. 

143.  Fig.  15.  It  is  easily  observable  that  the 
muscles  of  the  face  are  double. 

144.  Fig.  16  represents  the  Neck  cut  across,  in 


138.  What  members  and  parts  of  them  constitute  the  Mental  Mechanism  ? 
What  is  the  B.  Mechanism?  139.  How  will  — ? 140.  — what?  141.  Is  — 

right  and  left  ? 142.  What  does  — ? 143.  What  by  — ? 144.  What  does  — ? 


INTO  TWO  MECHANISMS. 


39 


which  it  will  be  observed  that  most  of  the  parts  are 
double ; those  which  are  not  will  be  explained. 


Fig.  15.  Fig.  17. 


How  many  different  muscles  can  you  count  in  each  side  of  Fig.  15  ? Are 
the  parts  on  both  sides  of  Fig.  16  numbered?  Why  not?  How  many  parts  in 
Fig.  16  do  not  appear  to  be  double  ? 


40 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  SIX  MEMBERS 


145.  Fig.  17  represents  a front  view  of  the  brain, 
the  spinal  cord,  extending  down,  and  its  branching 
nerves.  Is  not  the  whole  double  ? 

146.  Fig.  18  represents  (1  and  3)  the  pipe,  tube, 
or  swallow,  through  which  food  passes  into  the  Stomach, 
or  food-pouch  (8,  9,  10,  and  12),  situated  in  its  natural 
position  in  the  Trunk-walls,  a part  of  which  is  shown. 


Fig.  18. 


147.  It  is  here  seen  that  the  Stomach,  the  tube  (3), 
and  the  great  Blood-tube  (2),  are  single. 


145.  What  does  — ? 146.  What  does  — ? What  is  the  position  of  the 

Stomach  in  the  Trunk?  Does  the  Stomach  extend  across  from  side  to  side,  or 
from  front  to  hack,  of  the  Trunk  ? 147.  — that  what  parts  are  single  ? 


INTO  TWO  MECHANISMS. 


41 


148.  Though  the  Lungs,  in  one  view,  are  called 
double — so  is  the  heart — and  we  speak  of  them  as  the 
right  and  left  lung,  or  heart,  yet  they  are  really  single, 
for  both  lungs,  or  both  parts  of  the  lungs,  are  necessary 
for  complete  breathing,  and  each  heart  has  an  entire 
and  distinct  office. 

149.  All  the  Contents  of  the  Trunk- walls,  or 
the  Blood-making  parts  or  mechanism,  are  to  be  looked 
upon  as  single,  and,  when  apparently  double,  are  to  be 
regarded  as  parts  of  a single  thing ; for  if  one  lung  is 
diseased  or  injured  so  that  a man  cannot  breathe  with 
it,  he  suffers  from  want  of  breath ; while,  if  he  loses 
one  eye,  he  can  see  as  well  as  ever,  in  most  respects. 

150.  But  the  Mental  Mechanism,  when  in  any 
respect  it  seems  single,  is  really  double.  The  Head 
is  double ; and  though,  when  divided,  we  may  call  its 
parts  the  right  and  left  half  of  the  Head,  it  will  be 
better  to  call  them  the  right  and  left  Heads,  since, 
though  they  cannot  operate  when  removed  from  each 
other,  each  does  operate  by  itself  when  they  are  to- 
gether ; and  the  parts  are  also  completely  alike  on  each 
side  of  the  line. 

151.  There  are  in  the  HexVd,  not  only  two  ears 
and  two  eyes,  but  two  noses — for  each  nostril  is  a dis- 
tinct nose — and  two  mouths ; for  though  it  is  single,  so 
far  as  it  is  useable  for  eating  food,  drinking  water,  and 
breathing,  viz.,  so  far  as  it  works  for  Blood-making,  and 
belongs  to  the  Contents  of  the  Trunk-walls,  yet,  so  far 
as  it  regards  tasting  or  touching  anything,  it  is  mental, 
and  is  double — there  being  a line  above  and  below, 
showing  the  line  of  union : look  and  see  it. 

152.  The  Neck  is  double,  as  is  shown  by  Fig.  16, 
in  which  the  single  tubes  through  which  the  food  and 
air  pass,  are  seen  at  12  and  13  ; 28  is  a bone,  and  also 


148.  What  is  really  true  — ? 149.  What  said  of  — ? 150.  What  said  of  — ? 
151.  — how  many  evidently  double  parts  ? Can  you  see  the  dividing  line  in 
the  roof  of  the  mouth,  and  on  the  tongue  ? 152.  Is  — ? 


42 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  SIX  MEMBERS. 


divisible  into  the  right  and  left,  at  least,  into  two  equal 
halves. 

153.  The  Trunk- walls  are  double;  it  is  evident 
the  limbs  are ; and  an  examination  of  the  larynx  will 
show  that  that  organ  is  also  double. 

154.  It  can  now  be  understood  that  a person  may 
not  only  be  right-handed,  but  other  parts  of  the  body 
may  be  stronger  upon  one  side  than  upon  the  other. 

155.  Indeed  it  generally  happens  that  if  a per- 
son is  right-handed,  he  will  be  right-footed,  and  right- 
faced as  well ; so  that,  by  looking  at  the  face,  and 
observing  which  side  a person  uses  the  most  actively, 
we  can  usually  tell  whether  he  is  right  or  left-handed ; 
so  we  can  by  observing  the  foot,  for  a person  will 
usually  “ turn  out  his  toes  55  the  most  on  the  weakest 
side. 

156.  If  A PERSON  CAN  USE  ONE  HAND  NEARLY  AS 
well  as  he  can  the  other,  he  will  have  a smooth  voice, 
because  both  sides  of  the  larynx,  that  chiefly  produces 
the  tones  of  the  voice,  are  as  well  balanced  as  the 
hands. 

157.  It  appears  then  that  every  person  has  two 
Heads,  right  and  left ; two  Necks,  right  and  left ; two 
Trunk-walls,  right  and  left ; two  lower  limbs,  right  and 
left  ; two  upper  limbs,  right  and  left ; two  larynxes, 
right  and  left ; which,  together,  make  up  the  right  and 
left  Mental  Mechanisms. 

158.  There  are  therefore  three  mechanisms  in 
the  body — two  alike  in  kind — right  and  left,  Mental, 
and  the  Blood-making,  in  a tabular  manner,  thus  : 

_ j Mind  ( Mental  j ?'Iht 

| Body  — six  Members  = three  Mechanisms  -j  * 

( Blood-making 

159.  The  two  Mental  Mechanisms  are  closely 


153.  Are  — ? What  other  parts  are  ? 154.  What  — ? 156.  What  — ? 

156.  What  is  usually  true  — ? 157.  — how  may  they  be  called?  158.  — what 
are  they?  159.  How  are  — ? 


INTO  TWO  MECHANISMS. 


43 


united,  so  as  to  form  a whole,  not  only  by  growing 
together  at  certain  points,  but,  so  to  speak,  by  being 
geared  together  by  nerves  that  extend  across  from  one 
to  the  other ; so  that  the  mind  can  use  the  two  as  if 
they  were  one,  by  means  of  influences  passing  through 
these  cross  nerves,  called  commissures. 

160.  The  Blood-making  is  united  to  the  Mental 
Mechanisms,  not  only  by  growing  to  them,  but  by 
means  of  important  and  numerous  bundles  of  nerves 
that  extend  between  the  Mental  and  Blood-making 
Mechanisms,  through  which  Nervous  Influences  act  in 
both  directions. 

161.  Fig.  19,  one  of  the  most  beautiful  cuts 
ever  made,  admirably  represents  a portion  of  the 
Head,  Neck,  and  Trunk,  exposing  the  bundles  of 
nerves  (c,  #,  d)  extending  between  the  Stomach  (5)? 
the  Liver  (Z),  the  Lungs  (L),  and  the  Head:  through 
these  the  mind  acts,  and  is  acted  upon,  but  not  in  such 
a direct  manner  as  in  case  of  the  other  class  of  nerves ; 
if  a man’s  mind  is  gloomy,  or  is  perplexed  about  his 
business,  it  will  affect  his  Stomach  and  prevent  its 
digesting  his  food  well,  but  he  cannot  make  his  Stomach 
act,  or  cease  acting. 

Illustration  1. — Dr.  Beaumont,  who  had  the  oppor- 
tunity of  frequently  looking  into  the  injured  Stomach 
of  Alexis  St.  Martin,  says,  that  if  he  became  angry  the 
process  of  digesting  the  food  in  the  Stomach  would 
sometimes  stop  for  an  hour,  and  then  not  go  on  well. 

Illustration  2. — No  person  can  blush  or  make  his 
face  pale  by  merely  willing  to  do  so ; but  if  he  feels 
angry,  &c.,  the  effect  of  his  feelings,  through  certain 
of  the  nerves  upon  the  Blood-Tubes,  will  increase  or 
lessen  their  size,  which,  by  allowing  more  or  less  Blood 
to  pour  into  them,  will  affect  the  color  of  the  face. 


What  are  the  cross  nerves  called?  160.  How  is  — ? 161.  What  does — ? 
What  is  the  testimony  of  Dr.  Beaumont  ? What  will  change  the  color  of  the 
face  ? 


44 


• ANALYSIS  OF  THE  SIX  MEMBERS 


Fig.  19. 


Will  you  compare  the  nerves  of  Fig.  19  with  those  in  plate-page  3,  and  in 
Fig.  3,  and  state  the  difference  between  them  as  it  respects  the  parts  that 
they  appear  to  connect,  or  to  which  they  seem  to  belong  ? 


INTO  TWO  MECHANISMS. 


45 


Remark. — On  the  other  hand,  if  the  Stomach  is  not 
well,  it  will  affect  the  mind  badly.  A child  should  not 
ask  a favor  of  its  father  just  before  dinner,  but  wait  till 
his  Stomach  is  satisfied,  and  the  request  will  be  more 
likely  to  be  granted. 

162.  Some  of  the  most  important  lessons  in  Phy- 
siology, or  in  any  branch  of  Science,  are  suggested 
by  the  truths  exhibited  in  this  chapter. 

163.  One  of  the  grandest  truths  that  can  be 
learned  is  the  one  shown  by  the  classification  of  the 
members  into  two  kinds  of  Mechanism — Mental  and 
Blood-making  ; for  it  shows  that  there  will  be  two 
great  classes  of  very  interesting,  practical  facts : one 
class  includes  everything  that  has  anything  to  do  with 
Blood-making — such  as  food,  drink,  air,  clothing,  shelter, 
&c.,  things,  like  the  Blood,  of  a material  nature ; the 
other  class  includes  everything  that  improves  the  Mind 
— what  we  hear,  see,  &c. ; our  thoughts,  feelings,  &c., 
that,  like  the  Mind,  are  of  an  immaterial  nature.  In 
short,  we  must  study  the  Blood,  and  study  the  Mind. 

164.  The  second  great  truth  is  very  clearly 
shown,  viz.,  that  all  parts  of  the  Body  exist  only  be- 
cause necessary  on  account  of  the  Mind ; therefore,  the 
study  of  the  Blood-making  Mechanism  is  important  only 
because  Blood  is  necessary  to  keep  in  good  condition 
those  parts  of  the  Body  that  the  Mind  uses. 

165.  The  third  great  truth  is,  that  the  action  of 
the  Mind  impresses  the  Body;  that  an  often  repeated 
impression  becomes  permanent,  since  the  frequent  and 
stronger  use  of  the  right  face  gives  it  a stronger  ex- 
pression ; if,  therefore,  persons  wish  a pleasant  and  good 
expression,  they  must  be  pleasant  and  good  in  their 
Minds,  by  habit ; on  the  other  hand,  a deceiving  or  ill- 
natured  Mind  will,  by  habit,  produce  a bad  face. 


Remark. — What  effect  if  the  Stomach  is  diseased  ? When  will  a request 
he  most  readily  granted?  162.  What  is  said  about  — ? 163.  What  is  — ? 

What  should  we  study  ? 161.  "What  is  — ? 165.  What  — ? 


46 


ANALYSIS  OF  MECHANISMS  INTO  APPARATUS. 


CHAPTER  V. 

ANALYSIS  OF  MECHANISMS  INTO  APPARATUS. 

166.  If  WE  REVIEW  THE  topics  of  the  previous 
chapters,  we  shall  find  that 

M (Mind  (Mental  j ®jiht 

( Body  = six  Members  = three  Mechanisms  -j  * e 

( Blood-making 

167.  We  have  in  this  chapter  a very  interesting 
study,  that  of  the  construction  of  mechanisms. 

168.  Each  mechanism  has  been  spoken  of  as  a 
single  thing — and  very  properly — because  that  which  is 
accomplished  by  one  is  very  different  from  that  which 
is  done  by  the  other. 

169.  In  another  sense,  each  mechanism  is  not  a 
single  thing  : because,  as  has  already  been  seen,  it  must 
be  made  up  or  constructed  of  several  different  sets  of 
parts,  each  set  or  class  adapted  to  perform  a certain 
duty;  yet  the  whole  is  intended  to  work  together,  in 
accomplishing  the  intended  purpose  of  the  mechanism, 
which  purpose  cannot  be  accomplished  without  the 
assisting  action  of  each  part  of  the  mechanism. 

170.  Blood-making  requires,  for  example,  that  air 
should  be  breathed,  water  drank,  food  eaten,  &c.,  for 
each  of  which  corresponding  sets  or  classes  of  parts 
must  be  needed. 


What  is  the  subject  of  Chapter  V.  ? 166.  What  shall  we  find  — ? 

167.  What  do  — ? 168.  How  has  — ? 169.  Why  is  not  — ? How  is  the  whole 
intended  to  work  ? 170.  What  does  — ? 


ANALYSIS  OF  MECHANISMS  INTO  APPARATUS.  47 


171.  Each  set  or  class  of  parts  needed  in  each 
mechanism  for  performing  each  distinct  duty,  is  called 
an  apparatus,  and  what  is  performed  is  called  its 
function . Of  course  there  must  be  as  many  of  one  as 
there  are  of  the  other. 

172.  Example. — Breathing , or  respiration , is  called 
a function  ; and  the  set  or  class  of  parts  concerned  in 
performing  it,  is  called  the  breathing,  or  Respiratory 
Apparatus. 

Remark  1.— Thus  each  apparatus  has  its  function , 
and  each  function  its  apparatus,  the  same  as  a 
mechanism  has  a purpose , &c. 

Remark  2. — There  is  no  opportunity  of  seeing  an 
entire  apparatus  during  life,  because  some  part,  or 
the  whole  of  each,  is  hidden  below  the  surface. 

Fig.  20  represents  a large  part  of  the  Digestory 
Apparatus : the  face  being  turned  to  one  side,  in  order 
the  better  to  show  how  the  food  passes  over  the 
tongue  (1),  and  down  through  the  throat  into  the 
tube  (6,  7)  leading  to  the  Stomach  (8,  9,  10,  11).  The 
Stomach  is  represented  as  if  distended  and  the  front 
half  removed,  so  that  we  are  supposed  to  be  looking 
upon  its  inner  back  surface.  At  6,  and  for  a short  dis- 
tance above,  the  tube  is  represented  as  entire  ; the 
throat  is  represented  as  divided  on  its  middle  line,  the 
division  being  carried  through  the  windpipe  in  front, 
through  the  tongue,  and  up  through  the  head  ; every- 
thing above  the  mouth  and  throat  being  shaded. 

At  14  is  the  muscle  that  closes  the  opening  from 
the  Stomach  into  the  long  canal  (15,  16,  17)  called  the 
Second  Stomach  ; open  in  a part  of  its  extent  above, 
and  below  at  27,  its  connection  with  a larger  canal, 
the  colon  open  through  its  whole  extent  ; 23  is  a tube 
from  the  pancreas,  opening  into  the  upper  part  of  the 


171.  What  is  the  name  of  — ? 172.  Give  example.  Each  apparatus  has 
what?  Remark  2. —Why  is  there  — ? What  does  Fig.  20  — ? How  is  the 
Stomach  represented  ? What  shown  at  6?  What  shown  at  14  ? 


48 


ANALYSIS  OF  MECHANISMS  INTO  APPARATUS. 


Fig.  20. 


Into  how  many  parts  is  the  Digestory  or  Alimentary  Canal  divisible  ? 
Mouth,  throat,  or  Pharynx  ; meat-pipe,  swallow,  or  (Esophagus  ; Stomach* 
Second  Stomach,  and  colon.  What  is  the  use  of  the  arrows  ? 


ANALYSIS  OF  MECHANISMS  INTO  APPARATUS.  49 


Second  Stomach  ; 21  leads  the  fluids  down  from  the 
liver  and  the  gall-bladder. 

To  prepare  the  food  to  enter  and  become  part  of 
the  Blood,  all  these  parts — the  Mouth,  Stomach,  Second 
Stomach,  Colon,  and  their  minor  adjuncts — -are  neces- 
sary ; hence,  they  are  all  classed  together  as  one — the 
Digestorv  Apparatus,  its  function  of  preparing  the 
food  being  called  Digestion.  (This  word  is  sometimes 
limited  to  mean  merely  the  process  that  takes  place  in 
the  Stomach,  and  the  word  alimentation  used  for  the 
whole  process  of  preparing  food,  in  which  case  the  appa- 
ratus is  called  the  Alimentary  Apparatus.) 

173.  There  are  two  ways,  therefore,  in  which 
we  may  study  our  subjects  : We  may  seek,  first,  to 
learn  how  many  apparatuses  there  are,  and  thus  learn 
how  many  functions  there  can  be  ; or  we  may  learn 
how  many  functions  are  needed,  and  thus  perceive  what 
number  of  apparatuses  there  must  be.  The  latter  is 
much  the  most  interesting  and  satisfactory. 

SENSATION— SENSATORY  APPARATUS. 

174.  First,  it  is  evident  that  the  mind  must  have 
good,  reliable,  and  ready  means  of  gaining  a knowledge 
of  all  objects  outside  the  body ; and  also  a knowledge 
of  the  condition  of  the  various  parts  of  which  the  body 
itself  is  constituted.  This  is  obtained  by  the  function 
called  Sensation,  of  which  there  are  many  varieties : 
those  of  hearing,  seeing,  smelling,  tasting,  touching, 
and  of  the  muscular  sense,  being  the  functions  by  which 
we  gain  a knowledge  of  what  is  around  us ; while  those 
of  hunger,  thirst,  pain  of  various  kinds,  &c.,  are  func- 
tions by  which  we  learn  something  in  regard  to  our 
bodies  themselves. 


What  does  23  represent  ? What  is  21  ? What  is  Digestion  ? How  some- 
times used?  173.  What  are  — ? 174.  — what?  What  do  we  learn  by 

Sensation  ? 

3 


50 


ANALYSIS  OF  MECHANISMS  INTO  APPARATUS. 


175.  To  PRODUCE  ALL  THESE  VARIETIES  OF  INSTRUC- 
TIVE sensations,  is  the  function  of  an  equal  variety 
of  apparatus,  each  having  its  appropriate  name ; taken 
together,  they  are  called  the  Sensatory  or  the  Sensory 
Apparatus,  thus : 


The  Grand  Sensatory  Apparatus  = Apparatus  of 


” Hearing 
Seeing 
Smelling 
Tasting 
Touching 
Muscular  sense 


_ Internal  senses 


MOTION— MOTORY  APPARATUS. 


176.  It  is  also  evident  that  the  mind  requires 
an  apparatus  for  motion,  because  some  kind  of  motion 
must  be  made  at  every  moment  of  a person’s  life. 

177.  Motion  begins  where  sensation  terminates, 
viz.,  in  the  Brain,  some  parts  of  which,  also  called  Gan- 
glia, produce  an  influence  that,  extending  through 
nerves,  terminates  in  a muscle,  and  causes  it  to  contract 
and  draw  its  two  ends  towards  each  other,  thus  moving 
whatever  they  are  attached  to. 

Illustration. — If  an  influence  is  extended  from 

THE  BRAIN  THROUGH  NERVES  TO  THE  MUSCLE  UPON  THE 

front  part  of  the  upper  arm,  the  muscle  will  instantly 
contract,  or  grow  shorter,  causing  the  ends  to  approach, 
and  moving  up  the  lower  arm,  to  a bone  of  which  the 
lower  end  of  this  muscle  grows : try  this  experiment. 

178.  Each  muscle  with  its  nerve  and  Ganglion 
might  be  called  an  Apparatus  of  Motion  ; but,  usually, 
all  the  muscles  with  their  nerves  and  Ganglia  are  called 
the  Apparatus  of  Motion,  or  the  Motory  Apparatus, 
its  function  being  called  motion. 


175.  — what  ? Name  the  Sensatory  Apparatus.  176.  Why  is  it  — ? 

177.  Where  does  — ? Illustration.— What  effect  — ? 188.  What  might  — ? 
What  js  the  function  of  a Motory  Apparatus  ? 


ANALYSIS  OF  MECHANISMS  INTO  APPARATUS. 


51 


179.  The  skeleton  is  evidently  necessary  to  a 
large  part  of  the  Motory  Apparatus.  It  is  also  ap- 
parent that  more  than  half  of  the  body  is  constructed 
of  the  Motory  Apparatus  (plate-page  2). 

180.  A COMPARISON  OF  THE  MOTORY  AND  SeNSA- 
tory  Apparatus  will  show  that  there  must  be  two 
kinds  of  nerves  connecting  between  the  muscles  and 
the  brain,  or  else  the  same  nerve  has  two  uses  (which 
can  be  proved  not  to  be  the  case),  for  there  is  one  nerve 
to  excite  the  muscle  to  contract,  and  another  through 
which  a sensation  is  caused  when  the  muscle  does 
contract. 

INTELLECTION-INTELLECTORY  apparatus. 

181.  The  mind  will  not  be  satisfied  to  merely 

PRODUCE  MOTION  AND  EXPERIENCE  SENSATIONS  ; it  must 

think  and  have  emotions ; indeed,  sensation  and  motion 
both  require  and  produce  thinking  and  emotion. 

182.  Every  one  is  conscious  that  he  must  think, 
and  that  he  does  think  whenever  he  has  sensations,  and 
in  order  to  produce  motion.  If  a barefooted  boy  steps 
on  a thorn  he  has  a sensation  of  pain,  thinks  of  what 
caused  it,  and  that  he  will  raise  his  foot  and  remove 
the  thorn  ; the  like  effects  will  be  produced  if  a girl 
pricks  her  finger. 

EMOTION— EMOTORY  APPARATUS. 

183.  The  emotions  of  a person  are  different 
from  his  thoughts,  though  he  has  thoughts  at  the  same 
time.  The  feelings  the  two  produce  are  different,  and 
so  are  their  effects  on  the  body.  Thoughts  will  not 
flush  the  face,  but  emotions  will.  This  shows  that  the 


179.  To  what  is  — ? 180.  What  will  — ? 181.  Why  will  not  — ? 182.  Of 

what  is  — ? 183.  In  what  respect  are  — ? What  difference  between  the 
action  of  the  thoughts  and  emotions,  as  can  be  seen  in  the  face  ? 


52  ANALYSIS  OF  MECHANISMS  INTO  APPARATUS. 

emotions  do  not  take  place  apart  from  the  body,  but  in 
connection  with  it ; and  also  shows  that  thoughts  and 
emotions  are  not  the  same. 

184.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  the  mind 
needs,  in  addition  to  the  apparatus  for  motion  and  sensa- 
tion, an  apparatus  with  which  to  think,  and  another  to 
assist  in  producing  the  emotions. 

Remark. — How  many  varieties  of  these  there  are 
no  one  can,  as  yet,  determine. 

185.  The  apparatus  for  the  function  of  thought, 
or  intellection,  is  called  the  Intel]  ectory  Apparatus. 

186.  The  apparatus  for  the  function  of  emotion 
is  called  the  Emotory  Apparatus. 

187.  Both  of  these  kinds  of  apparatus  are  con- 
fined to  parts,  or  Ganglia,  of  the  Brain,  and  are  so 
hidden  from  sight,  that,  as  yet,  it  has  been  impossible 
to  learn  how  they  work ; therefore,  about  the  working 
of  the  most  important  parts  of  the  body  the  least  is 
known.  A noble  field  of  discovery  is  here  yet  open  to 
the  enthusiastic  and  interested  student,  which,  if  he 
will  thoroughly  explore  and  unfold,  he  will  more  bless 
mankind,  than  if  he  should  discover  an  Eldorado. 

188.  The  mind,  it  is  seen,  requires  four  kinds 
of  Apparatus — Sensatory,  Emotory,  Intellectory,  and 
Motory — thus : 

{Sensatory 

Intellectory 

Motory 

189.  The  four  kinds  of  apparatus  have  their 
roots  in  the  Brain  : indeed,  two  kinds — the  Intellectory 
and  the  Emotory — are  wholly  constructed  from  parts  of 
the  Brain.  How  the  mind  acts  upon  them,  or  is  acted 
upon  by  them,  no  one  knows. 


184.  What  is  it  — ? 185.  — what  ? 186.  — what  ? 187.  To  what  are  — 
Is  the  action  of  the  Brain  understood  ? 188.  VThat  does  — ? 189.  What 
said  of  — ? 


ANALYSIS  OF  MECHANISMS  INTO  APPARATUS.  53 


190.  It  must  be  remembered  that  as  these  four 
kinds  of  apparatus  taken  together  are  the  Mental 
Mechanism,  and  it  is  double,  so  they  must  be  as  they 
are — right  and  left.  There  are,  therefore,  two  Sensa- 
tory,  two  Emotory,  two  Xntellectory,  and  two  Motory 
Apparatuses. 

CIRCULATION — CIRCULATORY  APPARATUS. 

191.  In  the  next  place,  it  will  be  evident,  in 

REGARD  TO  ALL  THESE  FOUR  KINDS  OF  APPARATUS,  that 

they  must  grow : must,  while  growing,  and  after  they 
are  done  growing,  be  warmed,  or  cooled,  as  circum- 
stances require,  and  be  kept  in  repair.  For  this  purpose 
various  substances  will  be  required,  which  must  also  be 
carried  to  the  innermost  parts  of  each  apparatus. 

192.  That  the  substances  required  may  reach 
the  places  requiring  them,  they  must  be  dissolved  in 
water,  thus  forming  Blood,  and  poured  through  a set 
of  tubes  in  often-returning  currents. 


Fig.  21. 


193.  Fig.  21  represents  a very  simple  plan  for 
pouring  the  Blood  through  any  part ; h is  a pouch  or 
hollow  muscle,  which  by  contracting  lessens  its  own 
cavity,  and  drives  out  its  contents  through  a valve, 


190.  What  — ? Make  a table  showing  two  of  each  kind  of  apparatus. 

191.  What  — ? Will  one  substance  be  enough  for  the  wants  of  the  body  ? 

192.  What  will  be  necessary  in  order  — ? 193.  What  does  — ? 


54  ANALYSIS  OF  MECHANISMS  INTO  APPARATUS. 

represented  as  closed,  since  the  heart  ( h ) is  represented 
in  the  act  of  distending  and  filling  itself  from  (^)  a 
vein,  or  Blood-tube,  that  receives  the  blood  that  comes 
round  through  (c)  small  hair-like  tubes  called  capillary 
Blood-tubes,  or  vessels  (from  capilla — a hair).  Thus  the 
Blood  is  forced  out  by  h into  a (the  arteries)  through 
c (the  capillaries)  into  v (the  veins),  by  which  the  Blood 
is  lead  into  h to  be  again  poured  out,  and  pass-through 
the  same  circuit. 

Fig.  22. 


194.  Figs.  22,  23,  24,  and  25  represent  the  minute 
Blood-tubes,  or  capillaries,  of  different  parts — very  much 
magnified. 

1,  2 (Fig.  22)  are  arteries  leading  from  the  Heart; 
their  branches  can  be  followed  to  the  net-work  at  the 
ends  of  the  fingers.  Fig.  23  represents  a portion  of  a 
frog’s  foot  magnified.  Fig.  24  represents  a section  of 
the  skin  much  magnified  ; 5 leads  Blood  into  6 — the 
capillaries.  Fig.  25  beautifully  represents  a minute 
portion  of  the  Second  Stomach  very  much  magnified. 


Which  of  the  arteries  in  Fig.  22  is  the  one  felt  by  the  Doctor  when  he  feels 
the  pulse  ? 194.  What  do  — ? What  do  1,  2 (Fig.  22)  represent  ? What 

Fig.  23?  What  Fig.  24? 


ANALYSIS  OF  MECHANISMS  INTO  APPARATUS. 


55 


The  Blood  enters  through  14,  and  returns  through  15, 
the  two  being  connected  through  the  net-work — the 
capillaries. 


Fig.  23.  Fig.  24. 


What  do  the  arrows  in  Fig.  23  indicate  ? Does  5 in  Fig.  24  represent  a vein 
or  artery  ? By  what  means  are  14  and  15  in  Fig.  25  connected  ? Must  arteries 
and  veins  always  he  connected  by  capillaries? 


56 


ANALYSIS  OF  MECHANISMS  INTO  APPARATUS. 


Fig.  26 — plan  of  compound  cir- 
culation ; 1,  2 — two  hearts  enclosed 
in  one  membrane,  so  that  externally 
they  appear  as  a unit ; a,  arteries, 
leading  out  of  1,  and  branching  up- 
ward and  downward,  and  leading 
into  c , capillaries,  through  which 
their  contents  can  pass  into  v,  veins, 
that  open  into  2,  from  which  a"  lead 
into  c",  capillaries,  through  which 
their  contents  can  pass  into  v", 
opening  into  1.  Thus  a compound 
circuit  is  formed,  so  that  when  the 
hearts  alternately  contract  and  re- 
lax, they  can  pour  their  contents 
through  the  entire  course.  All  the 
Blood  in  this  case  passes  through 
the  eliminating  respiratory  organs, 
ry  also  marked  lungs. 

A cluster  of  organs  is  represent- 
ed by  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  of  which  those 
marked  d are  digestory  ; m (the 
spleen),  modificatory : and  e (the 
kidneys),  eliminatory.  These  re- 
ceive at  each  circulation  a part  of 
the  Blood  thrown  out  by  1 down- 
ward, and,  after  an  uncertain  num- 
ber of  circulations,  each  of  them 
must  have  the  opportunity  of  acting 
upon  all  the  Blood,  if  it  awaits  their 
action.  It  is  also  noticeable  that 
the  Blood  circulating  through  4,  5, 
6,  7,  circulates  through  8 (the  liver) 
before  it  passes  into  the  veins. 

1 is  called  the  Left,  Back,  and 
Systemic  Heart ; its  initials — S H ; 
a c and  v are  called  Systemic  Arte- 
ries, Capillaries,  and  Veins,  and 
have  the  respective  initials  : S Ay 
S Ct  S V ; 2 is  called  the  Right, 
Front,  Pulmonary,  or  Respiratory 
Heart ; a"y  c"  v " are  called  the  Pul- 
monary or  Respiratory  Arteries, 
Capillaries,  and  Veins,  having  the 
initials  P Ay  P Oy  P Vy  or  E Ay 
BOyBV. 


Fig.  23. 


What  does  Fig.  26  represent  ? Mention  the  parts  through  which  the  Blood 
passes  in  an  entire  circuit.  What  do  4-9  represent  ? What  is  1 called  ? What 
is  2 called  ? YVhat  is  peculiar  in  the  veins  of  4,  5,  C,  7 ? 


ANALYSIS  OF  MECHANISMS  INTO  APPARATUS.  57 


195.  Fig.  26  represents  a plan  of  the  entire  Cir- 
culatory Apparatus,  1 and  2 being  two  hearts  united 
so  as  to  appear  but  one  on  the  outside,  both  being 
enclosed  in  a heart-case ; but  two  are  necessary,  as  will 
be  seen. 

196.  a (Fig.  26)  represents  the  large  artery,  seen 
better  in  Fig.  3 : the  arrows  show  that  the  Blood  is 
flowing  out  from  the  heart  through  a . Branches  are 
represented  as  leading  off  into  different  parts  of  the 
body,  all  of  which  it  is  intended  to  represent ; from 
which,  again,  branches  lead  together,  and  at  last,  from 
above  and  from  below,  open  by  v into  the  other 
heart  (2). 

197.  a " represents  another  artery,  or  rather  two 
of  them,  commencing  from  the  other  heart  (2),  and 
leading  its  blood  into  the  lungs,  from  which  it  flows 
through  (?;")  veins  into  the  heart  (1),  whence  we  started 
to  go  round  the  circle,  or  circuit ; hence  the  name  cir- 
culation, and  Circulatory  Apparatus. 

198.  Sometimes  this  Circulatory  Apparatus  is 
divided  into  the  lesser  and  greater,  each  leading  from 
heart  to  heart ; but  the  true  circuit,  or  circulation,  can 
only  be  accomplished  by  means  of  both ; and,  if  divided, 
each  must  be  called  a part,  for  neither  is  a circuit. 

199.  But  it  will  often  occur  that  a part  will  need 
more  Blood  than  it  usually  requires,  or  several  parts 
may  need  an  increase  at  the  same  time. 

200.  It  is  evident  then  that  the  circulation  of 
the  Blood  must  be  regulated  in  accordance  with  the 
needs  of  the  different  parts,  and  made  to  move  faster  or 
slower,  as  the  case  requires. 

201.  What  shall  regulate  the  circulation  ? We 
have  found  that  motion  is  controlled  through  nerves ; 
but  the  motion  of  the  Blood  must  take  place  during  the 


195.  What  does  — ? 196.  What  does  a (Fig.  26)  represent  ? 197.  What  — ? 
198.  How  — ? 199.  What  requirement  for  Blood  — ? 200.  How  — ? 

201.  — ? 

Q5**' 

l) 


58  ANALYSIS  OF  MECHANISMS  INTO  APPARATUS. 

night  as  well  as  during  the  day,  when  our  minds  are 
asleep  as  well  as  when  they  are  awake ; besides,  the  cir- 
culation must  take  place  so  regularly  and  constantly, 
that  it  would  never  do  to  trust  so  important  a matter 
to  our  forgetful  minds. 

202.  To  REGULATE  THE  CIRCULATION,  WE  SHALL  NEED 
a distinct  set  of  Nervous  Apparatus,  with  its  own  Gan- 
glia, or  Nervous  Centres,  where  influences  are  produced, 
and  with  Nerves  through  which  these  influences  are 
exerted. 

203.  This  Nervous  Apparatus  that  controls  the 
circulation  of  Blood  is  called  by  various  names  ; we 
will  call  it  the  Nervous  Circulatory  Apparatus,  be- 
cause its  highest  use  is  to  control  the  circulation  of 
Blood.  (It  is  also  called  Organic  Nervous  System — 
the  Sympathetic,  the  Ganglionic,  &c.) 

204.  Two  KINDS  OF  NERVOUS  CENTRES  ARE  THUS 
seen  to  exist  in  the  body  : one  is  voluntary,  asso- 
ciated directly  with  the  mind  in  the  brain ; the  other 
kind  is  involuntary,  viz.,  not  controlled  by  the  mind, 
and  is  found  below  the  brain.  There  are  several  of  the 
latter,  or  involuntary  nervous  centres,  some  of  them 
being  represented  by  e?,  df,  d (Fig.  19). 

205.  In  respect  to  life,  health,  vigor,  strength, 
&c.,  the  Involuntary  Nervous  Apparatus  is  the  most 
important  part  of  the  body. 

206.  As  this  Involuntary  Nervous  Apparatus 
controls  the  circulation,  it  can  be  understood  why 
the  Doctor  feels  the  pulse  ; for  it  is  not  to  learn  merely 
how  the  Blood  flows,  nor  how  the  Heart  beats,  but  to 
learn  the  condition  of  that  which  causes  the  beating; 
and  as  it  also  controls  or  influences  other  very  impor- 
tant operations,  the  Doctor  learns  how  they  will  be 
affected. 


Why  cannot  onr  minds  be  trusted  to  regulate  the  flow  of  Blood  '(  202.  — 
what  ? 203.  — what  ? 204.  What  — ? 205.  What  is  most  important  — ? 

206.  what  is  learned  ? What  makes  the  heart  beat  ? 


ANALYSIS  OF  MECHANISMS  INTO  APPARATUS. 


59 


207.  The  Blood  Circulatory  Apparatus  should 
include  the  Nervous  Apparatus,  as  some  think,  since 
every  apparatus  requires  a nervous  part ; but  it  seems 
preferable,  on  some  accounts,  to  make  the  distinction 
that  we  have  done. 

208.  As  the  Involuntary  Nervous  Apparatus 

IS  SO  IMPORTANT  ON  ACCOUNT  OF  CONTROLLING  THE  CIR- 
CULATION of  Blood,  it  would  appear  that  whatever 
can  assist  in  regulating,  controlling,  or  influencing,  the 
flow  of  Blood,  must  be  also  very  important. 

209.  The  Circulatory  Apparatus  may  be  ar- 
ranged IN  TABULAR  FORM,  thus  : 

{Nervous  = Ganglia  Nerves 

Blood  = Heart,  Artery,  Capillary,  Vein,  Heart,  Ar- 
tery, Capillary,  Vein 


210.  The  Blood  Circulatory  Apparatus  may  be 
arranged  in  a circuit,  as  appears  below.  Go  from 
Heart  into  Artery,  and  thus  around : 


Capillary 

Artery  Vein 

Heart  Heart 

Vein  Artery 

Capillary 


Heart 

Artery 

Capillary 

Vein 

Heart 

Ganglia 

Nerves 

Artery 

Capillary 

Vein 

N.  Cir.  App. 

B.  Cir.  App 

207.  Wliat  — ? 208.  What  would  appear  — ? 209.  How  may  — ? 210.  How 
may  — ? Will  you  repeat  the  names  of  the  parts  through  which  Blood  passes, 
and  in  the  order  in  which  it  moves  through  them  ? 


60 


ANALYSIS  OF  MECHANISMS  INTO  APPARATUS. 


211.  The  vital  importance  of  the  Blood  to  every 

PART  OF  THE  BODY,  IS  ABUNDANTLY  SHOWN  by  the  WOI1- 

derful  number  of  circuits  through  which  the  Blood  is 
led  into  every  minute  portion  of  the  body,  and  by  the 
admirable  provision  for  having  its  visits  very  frequently 
repeated. 

212.  The  importance  and  uses  of  the  Blood,  and 

THE  NECESSITY  FOR  IT  AND  ITS  INNUMERABLE  CIRCUITS, 

will  be  understood,  by  learning  what  the  different 
parts  of  the  body  need,  in  order  to  be  kept  in  a perfect 
condition  for  use. 

213.  First. — For  perfect  action  the  different 
parts  of  the  body  must  be  kept  at  a proper  tempera- 
ture, neither  too  warm  nor  too  cool. 

214.  Blood  is  therefore  needed  to  warm  the 
parts  if  too  cool,  and  to  cool  them  if  too  warm  ; and 
therefore  it  seems  as  if  it  must  partake  of  two  natures. 

215.  Blood  may  easily  both  cool  and  warm  the 
body,  for  it  must  be  largely  composed  of  water ; and 
this,  by  oozing  on  to  any  surface,  and  evaporating,  will 
cool  it ; hence,  we  perspire  freely  when  too  warm  ; and 
a dog  when  too  warm  pants  rapidly  through  his  very 
moist  mouth,  and  cools  himself  by  rapidly  evaporating 
the  water  from  his  mouth. 

216.  In  the  water  of  the  Blood,  substances 
may  be  dissolved  that  are  adapted  to  produce  heat ; 
thus,  by  the  water  of  the  Blood,  and  the  substances  dis- 
solved in  it,  the  body  may  be  both  warmed  and  cooled. 

217.  The  processes  of  warming  and  cooling  are, 
in  fact,  taking  place  all  the  time,  and,  according  as  one 
or  the  other  takes  place  more  rapidly,  the  body  grows 
warmer,  or  cooler. 

218.  Second. — The  action  of  any  part  of  the 
body  always  renders  a portion  of  the  active  part  useless, 


211.  How  is  — ? 212.  How  will  — ? 218.  Fiiisf.  —must  be  kept  how? 
214.  Why  is  the  — ? 215.  Why  may  the  — ? 216.  — for  what  ? 217.  What 
are  — ? Second. — What  is  the  effect  of  — ? 


ANALYSIS  OF  MECHANISMS  INTO  APPARATUS. 


61 


in  such  a manner  that  it  must  be  taken  away,  and  new 
substance  laid  down  in  its  place. 

Remark. — Every  time  we  raise  a finger,  or  even  do 
so  small  a thing  as  wink ; every  time  we  think,  or  have 
a sensation  ; every  time  we  breathe  ; and  at  every  beat 
of  the  heart,  a certain  amount  of  substance  in  the  part 
that  acts  becomes  useless : thus  are  we  constantly  wear- 
ing out,  and  should  soon  be  gone  were  it  not  for  re- 
newing ourselves  as  rapidly.  The  boy  who  recites  to-day 
is  not  precisely  the  same  boy  that  he  was  yesterday. 

219.  The  Blood  is,  therefore,  necessary,  in  the 
second  place,  for  receiving  and  floating  away  useless 
substances,  and  for  bringing  new  and  good  substances 
to  be  laid  down  in  place  of  what  has  been  taken  away. 

Inference. — The  more  active  any  part,  the  more 
rapid  the  circulation  of  Blood  ought  to  be  through  it. 

220.  If  the  Blood  receives  useless  substances, 
called  impurities,  as  it  is  circulating,  they  must  be  re- 
moved from  it,  or  it  will  become  foul ; or  these  useless 
substances  - must  be  worked  over,  in  whole  or  in  part, 
and  again  made  fit  for  use  in  the  same  places  they  oc- 
cupied before,  or  in  some  other. 

Illustration. — In  any  factory,  if  a machine,  or  some 
part  of  it,  becomes  useless,  the  useless  or  worn  part  or 
pieces  are  not  always  thrown  away : if  of  iron,  it  can  be 
cast  over  again  ; if  of  wood,  it  can  at  least  be  burned. 

221.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  the  Blood, 

AS  WE  SHALL  FIND  IT  IN  THE  BODY,  IS  COMPOSED  of 

several  different  kinds  of  substances : 1st,  of  impurities 
to  be  worked  over,  or  worked  out ; 2d,  of  substances 
adapted  to  renew  every  part  and  portion  of  the  body ; 
3d,  of  substances  adapted  to  warm  the  body;  and  4th, 
of  water  in  large  quantity  to  dissolve  the  other  sub- 
stances, and  to  cool  the  body. 


Remark.— What  is  the  effect  of  every  motion,  thought,  emotion,  or  sensa- 
tion ? 219.  Why,  in  the  second  place,  — ? 220.  What  should  be  done—? 

221.  — of  what  ? What  takes  place  in  a factory  ? 


62  ANALYSIS  OF  MECHANISMS  INTO  APPARATUS. 

222.  It  is  necessary  then  that  the  Blood  should 
be  circulated  rapidly  through  all  the  different  parts 
of  the  body,  and  also  be  constantly  operated  upon  in 
several  different  ways,  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  it  in 
a condition  fit  for  use. 

RESPIRATION— RESPIRATORY  APPARATUS. 

223.  The  Blood  is  constantly  composed  of  several 
different  kinds  of  impurities  gathered  in  its  course. 

224.  One  kind  of  impurity  in  the  Blood  can  be 
best  removed  by  the  action  of  pure  air ; while  removed 
in  this  way,  it  will  also  assist  in  producing  heat. 

225.  In  addition  to  the  Circulatory  Apparatus 
by  which  the  Blood  can  be  carried  to  the  air,  there  will 
be  needed  an  apparatus  for  constantly  bringing  a large 
supply  of  air  to  the  Blood. 

226.  This  refreshing  function  is  called  Respira- 
tion, or  breathing  ; and  the  beautiful  apparatus  by  which 
it  is  performed,  is  called  the  Respiratory  or  Breathing 
Apparatus. 

227.  Two  IMPORTANT  EFFECTS  ARE  PRODUCED  AT  THE 
SAME  TIME  BY  THE  FUNCTION  OF  RESPIRATION  : the  Blood 
is  unloaded  of  a very  bad  impurity,  and  the  production 
of  heat  is  by  that  very  act  provided  for. 

228.  We  should  not  fail  to  notice  this  one  of 
many  different  cases  in  which  more  than  one  good  result 
is  produced  by  a single  operation. 

DIGESTION— DIGESTORY  APPARATUS. 

229.  As  substances  are  constantly  being  re- 
moved from  the  Blood  by  the  air  and  in  other  ways,  it 
is  necessary  that  it  should  be  as  regularly  supplied  with 
renewing  material. 


222.  How  — ? 223.  How  is  — ? 224.  What  is  true  of  — ? 225.  What  neces- 

sary — ? 226.  What  is  — ? 227.  — what  are  they  ? 228.  What  — ? 229.  What 
also  necessary  — ? 


ANALYSIS  OF  MECHANISMS  INTO  APPARATUS. 


63 


230.  The  function  by  which  new  material  is 
supplied  to  the  Blood,  is  called  Digestion  ; and  the 
apparatus  by  which  it  is  performed  is  called  Digestory 
Apparatus. 

231.  The  Digestory  Apparatus  is  also  the  most 
desirable  means  for  introducing  water  into  the  Blood. 

232.  It  will  also  be  found  that  some  of  the  pro- 
cesses BY  WHICH  FOOD  IS  PREPARED  TO  ENTER  THE  BlOOD, 
require  the  use  of  some  of  the  substances  that  in  the 
Blood  are  impurities,  which  in  thus  passing  out  of  Blood 
become  useful  in  introducing  new  substances  into  it — a 
very  happy  exchange  for  the  Blood. 

ELIMINATION-ELIMINATORY  APPARATUS. 

233.  If  the  quantity  of  water  in  the  Blood  is 
too  small,  our  thirst  will  induce  us  to  drink  more ; but 
what  shall  we  do  if  the  quantity  is  too  large  ? 

234.  If  the  body  is  overheated,  it  is  also  neces- 
sary that  we  should  have  some  means  of  removing  the 
surplus  heat. 

235.  There  will  also  yet  be  impurities  in  the 
Blood  that  cannot  be  removed  by  the  functions  of 
either  the  Digestory  or  Respiratory  Apparatus. 

236.  There  must  therefore  be  an  apparatus  for 
removing,  or  eliminating,  water,  heat,  and  certain  im- 
purities from  the  Blood  that  can  be  of  no  use  as  they  are 
being  removed : this  Apparatus  is  called  Eliminatory, 
and  its  function  is  called  Elimination. 

modification— modificatory  apparatus. 

237.  The  Blood  also  requires  to  have  some  changes 
produced  in  itself  without  anything  being  taken  from 


230.  — wliat?  231.  — for  what?  232.  — what?  233.  What  result  — ? 
234.  What  necessary—?  235.  — how  can  they  he  removed?  236.  — for 
what  purpose  ? 237.  What  does  — ? 


64  ANALYSIS  OF  MECHANISMS  INTO  APPARATUS. 

or  added  to  it.  This  is  a very  extensive  operation,  or 
function,  and  of  very  great  importance. 

238.  If  we  should  prick  a finger,  squeeze  out  a 

SINGLE  DROP  OF  BlOOD,  AND  EXAMINE  IT  WITH  A POWER- 
FUL microscope,  we  should  see  in  that  single  drop  nearly 
three  thousand  Blood-cells  ; and  such  are  floating  in 
every  drop  of  Blood  in  our  bodies.  These  Blood-cells 
are  minute  sacs,  shaped  something  like  a piece  of  money. 
They  are  very  thin,  and  filled  with  a peculiar  substance. 
The  cells  give  color  to  the  Blood. 

239.  Every  Blood-cell  of  the  millions  in  our 
Blood,  is  constantly  at  work  upon  the  Blood  in  which 
it  floats — taking  from  the  Blood,  and  giving  back  to  it 
again : other  cells,  located  in  parts  through  which  the 
Blood  flows,  also  change  the  Blood. 

240.  The  operation  or  function  of  changing  or 
modifying  the  Blood  without  taking  from  or  adding  to 
it,  is  called  Modification  ; and  the  parts  concerned  or 
performing  it,  are  called  the  Modificatory  Apparatus. 

Remark. — Of  course,  if  anything  is  taken  from  the 
Blood  it  is  modified ; but  the  word  is  not  used  in  that 
sense,  but  to  denote  a particular  mode  by  which  the 
Blood  is  modified,  without  anything  being  permanently 
taken  from  it. 

241.  For  perfect  Blood  there  is  needed  four  kinds 
of  apparatus— Respiratory,  Digestory,  Eliminatory,  and 
Modificatory ; or 

{Respiratory 

Eluninatory 

Modificatory 

242.  Each  of  these  kinds  of  apparatus  will  re- 
quire to  be  connected  with  the  Involuntary  Nervous 
Apparatus,  without  we  consider,  as  is  perhaps  most 


238.  What  should  we  see  — ? What  are  Blood-cells?  239.  — is  constantly 
doing  what  ? 240.  — of  Modification  is  what  ? 241.  What  — ? 242.  What 

will  — ? How  many  and  what  functions  can  they  perform  ? 


ANALYSIS  OF  MECHANISMS  INTO  APPARATUS. 


65 


proper,  that  there  is  a part  of  the  Involuntary  Nervous 
System  included  in  each  of  the  four  Blood-making  kinds 
of  apparatus. 

243.  The  connection  of  the  Blood-making  Appa- 
ratus with  the  Involuntary  Nervous  System  is 
necessary,  in  order  to  regulate  their  action  in  accord- 
ance with  the  wants  of  all  parts  of  the  body : for  ex- 
ample, to  increase  the  appetite  when  exercise  is  taken ; 
to  cause  thirst  when  the  body  is  too  warm,  &c. 

REVIEW  OF  FUNCTIONS  AND  APPARATUS. 

i 

244.  If  we  reconsider  the  functions  necessary 

TO  BE  PERFORMED  BY  THE  BODY,  WE  SHALL  FIND  that  the 

Mind  directly  requires  four ; and  that  four  are  required 
in  Blood-making : they  also  correspond  in  more  respects 
than  merely  in  similarity  of  number,  as  follows : 

{Motory 

Emotory°r^ 

Sensatory 

{Respiratory 

Eliminatory 

Modificatory 

Remark  1. — These  can  be  easily  remembered  by 
putting  them,  like  thimbles,  on  the  fingers ; beginning 
with  Motory  on  the  forefinger  of  the  right  and  Respira- 
tory on  that  of  the  left  hand. 

Remark  2. — It  will  be  remembered  that  the  Men- 
tory  Apparatus  is  double  throughout. 

245.  The  two  kinds  of  apparatus  needed  for 
circulation  must  not  be  unmentioned ; making,  in  all, 
ten  kinds  of  apparatus  needed  to  perform  all  the  func- 
tions demanded  of  the  body  by  the  mind. 


343.  Why  is  *—  ? 244.  — what  to  he  the  case  ? How  can  the  names  of  the 
apparatus  he  easily  remembered?  What  kinds  of  apparatus  are  double? 
245.  How  many  kinds  of  apparatus  if  you  include  — ? 


66 


ANALYSIS  OF  MECHANISMS  INTO  APPARATUS* 


Remark. — It  appears  evident  that  the  body  might 
be  divided  into  its  ten  apparatuses  without,  first,  classi- 
fying it  as  composed  of  members,  &c.  ; and  for  some 
purposes  this  would  be  best. 

246.  The  student  may  have  observed,  that  the 
name  of  an  apparatus  is  obtained  by  changing  the  - ion 
of  the  name  of  a function  into  - ory  ; and  that  the  name 
of  a function  can  be  had  by  changing  -ory  into  -ion. 

Remark. — The  ending  -ory  means  concerned  in  ; as, 
Digestory,  concerned  in  Digestion,  &c. 

247.  The  names  of  all  the  functions  and  apparatus 
may  be  tabled  as  follows  : 


Functions. 


Apparatuses. 


Mentory 

Mechanism 


Blood- 
making  „ 
Mechanism 


r > 

Sensation 

Emotion 

Intellection 

Motion 

N.  Circulation 
B.  Circulation 

Respiration 

Digestion 

Elimination 

Modification 


Sensatory 

Emotory 

Intellectory 

Motory 

N.  Circulatory 
B.  Circulatory 

Respiratory 

Digestory 

Eliminatory 

Modificatory 


Remark. — The  two  Circulatory  Apparatuses  may  be 
placed  on  the  thumbs. 

248.  The  ten  functions  and  apparatuses  are  ar- 
rangeable  in  two  groups  of  six  apparatuses  each,  since 
the  Circulatory  may  be,  in  one  sense,  said  to  belong  to  each 
mechanism,  or  to  entwine  both  mechanisms  together. 

249.  Thus  wte  again  have  exhibited  the  very  im- 
portant fact,  that  there  are  two  things  for  us  to  learn  : 
how  to  treat  the  body  so  as  most  perfectly  to  improve 
the  mind,  and  how  to  produce  the  best  quality  of  Blood 
for  the  purposes  it  should  fulfil. 


Remark.— How  could  the  "body  be  divided  ? 246.  What  may  — ? What 

does  the  ending  - ory  mean  ? 248.  How  are  — ? Will  you  repeat  them  on  the 
fingers  to  which  they  belong  ? 249.  — what  ? 


ORGANS  AND  THEIR  USES. 


67 


CHAPTER  VI. 


ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS  INTO  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  USES. 

250.  IN  THE  PRECEDING  CHAPTERS  WE  HAVE  MADE 
the  following  analysis  : 


CHAPTER  II. 


CHAPTER  III. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


CHAPTER  V. 


Man  = 


j Mind 
( Body 


= six  Members  = two  Mechanisms  = ten  Apparatuses 


251.  In  this  chapter  we  are  to  study  an  exceed- 
ingly interesting  and  very  practical  subject ; the  uses 
of  the  organs  leading  us  directly  to  notice  what  must 
be  done  to  keep  them  in  the  best  condition  for  use,  and 
how  to  use  them  most  advantageously ; which  is  the 
most  instructive  lesson  a person  can  learn. 

252.  It  was  evident  in  studying  the  ten  appa- 
ratuses, that,  though  each  was,  as  a whole,  properly 
spoken  of  as  a single  thing,  the  function  of  each  was 
performed  by  the  joint  or  successive  action  of  several 
different  parts. 

253.  The  parts  of  an  apparatus  are  called 
organs ; what  they  are  adapted  to  do  is  called  their 
use ; though  often  the  use  of  an  organ  is  very  im- 
properly spoken  of  as  its  function,  which  word  should 
always  be  associated  with  apparatus. 


What  is  the  topic  of  Chapter  VI.  ? 250.  What  — ? 251.  What  — ? 

252.  What  was  — ? 253.  — what?  What  is  the  action  of  an  organ  called? 
How  improperly  called  ? 


68 


ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS 


254.  Which  apparatus  shall  we  analyze  first? 
That  one  which,  understood,  will  most  aid  in  enabling 
us  to  understand  the  others. 

255.  The  skeleton  or  parts  of  it  are  essential  to 
each  kind  of  apparatus,  either  for  protection  or  support, 
or  for  both  objects. 

256.  Muscular  motion  is  also  an  important  element 
in  the  performance  of  each  function. 

MOTORY  APPARATUS. 

257.  It  will  be  best  to  begin  with  the  Motory 
Apparatus,  since  it  includes  the  chief  part  of  the  skele- 
ton, and  a large  part  of  the  muscles. 

Remark. — The  Motory  Apparatus  does  not  include 
every  muscle,  but  only  those  adapted  to  locomotion  of 
the  different  parts  of  the  skeleton  ; other  muscles  are  in- 
cluded in  the  apparatus  to  the  functions  of  which  they 
are  necessary.  Some  muscles  belong  to  the  Motory,  and 
also  to  other  apparatus — as  the  muscles  of  the  Chest- 
walls,  which,  being  Motory,  a person  can  control  to  a 
certain  extent ; but,  as  they  are  also  Respiratory,  the 
Mind  cannot  control  them  for  any  great  length  of  time, 
as  they  are  still  more  strongly  under  the  influence  of 
an  involuntary  centre.  Such  muscles  are  called  mixed ; 
while,  again,  there  are  some  muscles,  like  the  Heart, 
that  the  mind  cannot  control  at  all.  This  shows  that  it 
is  not  the  muscle,  but  the  nervous  centre,  or  centres, 
with  which  it  is  connected,  that  determines  whether  the 
muscle  belongs  to  the  voluntary  or  the  involuntary  class. 

Skeleton . 

258.  The  skeleton  is  intended  and  required  for 
protection,  support,  and  to  allow  many  motions  ; it 


254.  — ? 255.  What  apparatus  needs  — ? 256.  What  said  of  — ? 257.  With 
what  — ? Remark.— What  said  of  the  Motory  App.  ? What  muscles  belong 
to  Motory  and  Respiratory  App.  ? What  determines  the  class  of  muscles  ? 


INTO  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  USES. 


69 


must  therefore  be  strong,  stiff,  yet  elastic,  constructed 
with  joints,  without  being  weakened  by  them,  and, 
withal,  must  be  very  light. 

259.  1ST o single  substance  would  combine  all  that 
is  requisite  for  constructing  a skeleton. 

260.  Three  different  materials  are  required — 
Bone,  Gristle  or  Cartilage,  and  Sinew.  From  these 
three  there  can  be  constructed  a strong,  stiff,  elastic, 
light  skeleton,  with  as  many  joints  as  necessary  for  its 
most  perfect  use. 

( Bone 

Skeleton  = •<  Gristle,  or  Cartilage 
( Sinew — Ligament 

261.  If  we  look  at  the  surface  of  a bone  we 
shall  notice  small  holes ; these  are  for  Blood-vessels 
and  nerves. 

262.  If  we  crack  or  saw  open  a bone,  we  shall 
find  that  near  its  surface  it  is  quite  solid,  but  within 
it  is  very  sponge-like,  and  perhaps  with  a canal  in  the 
centre. 

263.  This  hollow  structure  of  bone  makes  it 
very  light,  while  it  is  none  the  less  strong. 

Remark. — In  most  animals  the  spaces  in  the  bone 
are  filled  with  marrow,  but  in  flying  birds  with  air. 

264.  A very  simple  and  interesting  experiment 
may  be  tried  with  two  long  slender  bones : put  one  in 
the  fire  and  the  other  in  diluted  muriatic  acid.  Upon 
removing  them,  after  a time,  they  will  have  nearly  the 
same  form  and  size  as  before ; but  the  former  can  be 
easily  crumbled  to  powder,  while  the  latter  can  be  tied 
in  a knot.  (See  Fig.  27.) 

265.  This  experiment  proves  that  bone  is  com- 
posed of  two  substances  : the  fire  burns  out  the  one, 


258.  For  what  is  — sufficient  ? 260.  — for  forming  skeleton  ; what  are 

they?  261.  What  seen  — ? 262.  What  learned  — ? 263.  What  said  of  — ? 

264.  How  try  — ? 265.  What  does  — ? 


70 


ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS 


and  muriatic  acid  eats  out  the  other  ; the  former  is 
called  the  animal,  gristly,  or  the  cartilaginous  part,  and 
the  latter  is  called  the  earthy  part. 


Fig.  27. 


Remark. — The  gristle  of  the  bones  is  not  like  the 
gristle  generally. 

266.  The  proportions  of  the  two  substances  of 
which  the  bones  are  constructed,  differ  in  differ- 
ent bones ; and  in  the  same  bones,  at  different  periods 
of  life,  they  differ  very  much : in  early  life  the  animal 
or  flexible  part  is  in  greater  proportion  ; in  later  life 
the  earthy  part  predominates. 

267.  In  early  life  the  bones  are  easily  bent  and 
deformities  caused  ; in  later  years  they  are  easily  broken 
and  recover  slowly,  if  at  all. 

288.  In  some  children  the  earthy  part  is  deposited 
much  more  rapidly  than  in  others  ; hence,  some  are 
adapted  to  walk  earlier  than  others. 

269.  We  can  easily  make  some  very  important 
inferences  : 1st.  Since  the  bones  grow  from  the  Blood 
which  is  made  from  the  food,  unless  the  right  kind  of 
food  is  given  to  a child,  its  bones  cannot  grow  properly; 
for  as  a mason  could  not  build  a chimney  if  we  should 


What  arc  the  names  of  the  substances  composing  bone  ? 266.  — differ 

how?  267.  — are  liable  to  be  affected  how?  268.  What  condition  exists  — ? 
269.  — what,  1st  ? 


INTO  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  USES. 


71 


withhold  either  bricks  or  mortar,  so  cannot  the  bones 
grow  perfectly  without  we  furnish  the  right  material. 
2d.  If  a child  is  set  upon  its  feet  before  its  bones  are 
hard  enough,  its  legs  will  be  apt  to  bend  ; or  if  a child 
is  carried  or  laid  too  frequently  in  the  same  position,  its 
bones  will  be  in  danger  of  being  curved. 

Remark  1. — No  child  can  be  taught  to  walk ; every 
one  walks,  not  by  learning,  but  as  an  animal  does,  con- 
trolled by  instinct  ; and  all  efforts  to  induce  a child 
to  walk  will  only  do  harm.  As  soon  as  it  is  strong 
enough,  it  will  get  upon  its  feet  without  assistance. 
Very  serious  deformities  are  caused  from  want  of  a 
knowledge  of  this  fact. 

Remark  2. — The  position  of  a young  child  should 
be  frequently  changed  during  its  sleep,  as  it  will  sleep 
the  sweeter,  and  the  longer,  and  with  less  danger  of 
deformity. 

270.  We  can  learn,  3d,  that  children  should  not 
jump  from  high  places,  as  the  weight  of  the  body  upon 
the  bones  will  tend  to  deform  them. 

271.  At  the  surface  of  the  bones,  growing  to 
them  very  strongly,  there  is  a thin  skin  called  perios- 
teum (about-bone). 


Fig.  28. 

Fig.  28  represents  the 
periosteum  peeled  up 
from  a part  of  the  bone 
upon  and  to  which  it 
grew. 

272.  It  is  beneath  this  periosteum  that  the  very 
painful  felon  is  seated ; and  the  pain  is  chiefly  caused 
because  this  strong  membrane  so  tightly  confines  the 
vessels  and  nerves  beneath  it.  One  way  to  treat  a felon, 


2d.  Effect  of  placing  a child  on  its  feet  too  early  ? Remark  1.— How 
does  a child  walk?  Remark  2.— What  said  of  position?  270.  What  can  — ? 
271.  What  found  — ? 272.  Seat  of  felon  ? 


72 


ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS 


and  usually  the  best,  is,  when  it  is  first  recognized,  to 
cut  down  upon  the  bone  through  the  periosteum,  and 
thus  relieve  the  parts  below  it  from  pressure. 

273.  The  gristle,  or  cartilage,  also  differs  in 
quality  in  different  parts  of  the  body,  at  the  same  time 
and  at  different  a^es.  In  some  parts  the  gristle  changes 
to  bone  in  advanced  life.  The  gristle  at  the  lower  end 
of  the  breast-bone  changes  very  early. 

Remark. — It  is  very  easy  to  ascertain  if  any  fowl  is 
young,  by  feeling  the  end  of  the  breast-bone  : if  it  yields 
to  pressure  easily,  the  bird  is  young ; if  it  is  firm,  like 
bone,  the  bird  is  old. 

274.  The  chief  peculiar  quality  of  cartilage  is 
its  elasticity,  or  springiness.  Hence,  it  very  properly  is 
found  covering  the  ends  of  bones  where  they  move 
against  each  other.  It  is  especially  thick  on  the  ends 
of  the  bones  in  the  lower  limbs,  thus  preventing  jars,  in 
walking,  from  being  felt  by  the  organs  above. 

275.  Sinew,  or  ligament,  is  the  strongest  of  all 
known  flexible  substances.  It  is  therefore  admirably 
adapted  to  bind  together  those  parts  of  the  skeleton 
that  must  move  upon  each  other.  The  manner  in 
which  the  ligaments  extend  across  the  joints  from  one 
portion  to  another  of  the  skeleton,  is  very  curious  and 
remarkable. 

276.  Kinds  of  joints.  Most  parts  of  the  skeleton 
must  be  fastened  together  so  that  they  can  move  upon 
each  other,  more  or  less  ; but  some  parts  should  be 
fastened  together  immovably.  There  will  therefore  be 
movable  and  immovable  joints. 

277.  Each  kind  of  joint  has  several  varieties,  best 
described  with  the  parts  where  they  exist. 

278.  We  will  now  consider  the  skeleton  in  detail— 
Head  first. 


273.  What  said  of  — ? How  to  know  if  a fowl  is  young  ? 274.  What  is  — ? 
275.  What  said  of  — ? 276.  How  many  — ? 277.  What  said  of  — ? 278.  How 
now  consider  skeleton  ? 


INTO  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  USES. 


73 


279.  The  brain  needs  to  be  protected  in  a small 
box,  or  case,  which,  to  be  the  strongest  with  the  least 
materia],  must  be  oval,  or  egg-shaped. 


Fig.  29.  Fig.  3Q. 


280.  Figs.  29,  30  represent  a side  and  back  view 
of  the  brain  in  its  case,  which  is  called  cranium. 

281,  Through  the  sides  of  the  cranium  must  be 
found  a sufficient  number  of  holes  to  allow  the  Blood- 
tubes  and  nerves  to  extend,  that  are  to  connect  the  brain 
with  all  parts  of  the  body.  Of  course,  the  larger  part  of 
these  holes  should  be  in  the  lower  part  of  the  cranium, 
so  that  its  upper  part  should  present  a nearly  smooth, 
ball-shaped  surface  to  the  hand,  or  eye. 

282,  To  the  lower  and  front  part  of  the  cra- 
nium should  be  attached  several  bones  that  serve  as  a 
framework  of  the  ear,  eye,  nose,  and  mouth.  These 
together  form  the  faciura,  which,  with  the  cranium, 
constitutes  the  skull. 

283.  Fig.  31  represents  the  bones  of  the  cranium 
(1,  2,  3,  4)  and  those  of  the  facium  separated  from  each 
other,  showing  the  jagged  or  notched  edges  of  the 
skull. 


279.  How  does  — ? 2S0.  What  does  — ? 281.  What  extend  — ? Where 

should  the  holes  he  the  largest  and  most  numerous  ? 282.  — what  should  be 
attached  ? 283.  What  does  — ? 

4 


74 


ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS 


Fig.  3L 


284.  In  thickness  the  cranium  has  three  layers 
called  tables.  The  outer  is  notched,  or  serrated,  and 
tough,  hence  called  fibrous.  The  middle  layer  is  sponge- 
form,  called  diploe ; the  inner  table  is  more  brittle,  and 
called  vitreous,  or  glassy ; its  edges  coming  together 
evenly,  making  a harmonious  joint. 

285.  The  bones  of  the  facium  are  very  irregular, 
and  constructed  so  as  to  accommodate  their  organs,  as 
will  be  best  shown  when  they  are  described. 

286.  The  cranium  thus  encases  the  brain  from  all 
ordinary  danger,  from  blows  upon  the  head,  &e. ; but 
as  jars  are  among  the  most  serious  dangers  to  which 
the  exceedingly  delicate  brain  is  exposed,  we  should 
take  great  care  to  avoid  blows  upon  the  head,  as  it 
sometimes  happens  that  a small  blow  will  produce  a 
yery  serious  effect. 

Remark.— If  a blow  or  other  injury  has  been  re- 


Do  you  observe  how  the  bones  of  the  face  are  situated  below  the  cranium  ? 
Cover  them,  and  observe  the  egg-shape  of  cranium.  2S4.  — ; describe  them. 
285.  What  said  of  — ? 286.  Why  avoid  blows  on  the  head  ? 


INTO  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  USES. 


75 


ceived  by  the  head,  and  there  is  an  inclination  to  sleep, 
let  it  be  gratified — sleep  is  desirable. 

287.  So  SENSITIVE  IS  THE  BRAIN  TO  JARS,  that  the 
cranium  must  be  mounted  and  carried  upon  the  most 
delicate  structure,  yet  strong,  that  can  be  devised; 

288.  The  back-bone,  or  spinal  column,  taken  in 
every  aspect,  is  the  most  exquisite  device  that  can  be 
found  in  the  wide  bounds  of  creation.  It  is  a strong 
pillar,  and  yet  exceedingly  flexible.  A canal  extends 
throughout  its  whole  length,  in  which  is  sheathed  and 
protected  the  great  spinal  cord,  from  which,  through 
the  sides  of  the  spinal  column,  extend  the  spinal  nerves, 
reaching  into  every  part  of  the  body. 

289.  The  spinal  canal  is  directly  beneath  the  large 
hole  in  the  base  of  the  cranium,  through  which  the 
spinal  cord  connects  with  the  brain. 


290.  Figs.  32  and  33  represent  the  under  and  upper 
surfaces  of  the  skull,  19  and  24  being  the  same  hole. 


If  the  head  is  injured,  should  sleep  be  allowed?  287.  — what  is  necessary? 
288.  What  is  the  structure  of  — ? 289.  — is  situated  how  in  regard  to  the 

head  ? 290.  What  do  — ? 


How  many  curves  are  there  in  the  spinal  column,  viewed  sidewise,  between 
14  and  1 ? How  many  hones  are  there  between  14  and  (including)  1 ? The  ear 
is  turned  forward  to  show  the  muscle  (6). 


INTO  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  USES. 


77 


291.  Fig.  34  represents  a head  upon  its  spinal 
column. 

292.  The  spinal  column  is  constructed  of  bones 
called  vertebrae,  of  thick  cartilages  called  intervertebral 
substances,  and  of  numerous  ligaments. 

C Vertebrae 

Spinal  Column  = Intervertebral  Substances 
( Ligaments 

293.  The  upper  two  vertebrae  are  curiously  jointed 
to  each  other,  and  to  the  cranium. 

294.  The  upper  one  (Fig.  35)  is  called  the  Atlas, 
because  on  its  two  broad  shoulders  it  supports  the 
head,  as  the  ancients  fabled  that  Atlas  supported  the 
world.  On  this  bone  the  head  moves  as  in  nodding. 
Fig.  35  shows  both  the  upper  and  lower  surfaces  of 
the  Atlas. 

295.  A pivot,  or  tooth  (2,  Fig.  36),  stands  up 
from  the  second  vertebra,  through  the  atlas,  and  is 
fastened  by  a ligament  to  the  cranium.  Round  this 
pivot  the  atlas  turns,  and  with  it  the  head,  of  course, 
as  when  a person  makes  the  sign  for  No.  This  vertebra 
is  called  the  Dentatus. 

296.  The  vertebrje  below  the  dentatus  have  a 
general  resemblance  to  each  other,  and  are  jointed  alike 
throughout.  They  differ  in  size  and  thickness,  and 
somewhat  in  form  ; Figs.  37,  38,  and  39,  representing 
three  from  different  regions  of  the  column. 

297.  Each  vertebra  is  constructed  of  a body  in 
front,  from  which,  on  each  side,  wings  curve  out  around, 
forming  a hole  and  closing  behind  it ; from  the  wings 
there  are  several  projections,  called  processes,  that 
serve  to  form  joints,  or  as  levers  for  the  attachment  of 
the  ribs,  the  muscles,  &c. 

298.  Between  the  bodies  of  all  the  vertebrae, 


291.  What  docs—?  292.  How  fs  — ? 293.  What  said  of  — ? 294.  What 
is  — ? 295.  — ; what  is  said  of  it  ? 296.  What  is  the  character  of  — ? 
297.  How  is  — ? 


78 


ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS 


from  the  Dentatus  down  to  the  sacrum  (14,  Fig.  34), 
there  is  inserted  an  elastic  substance,  quite  firm,  yet 
yielding  to  sufficient  pressure. 

299.  The  intervertebral  substance  serves  at 
once  three  uses:  it  supports'  the  weight  of  the  parts 
above  ; by  yielding,  prevents  their  feeling  the  full 
effects  of  jars;  and  also  allows  the  flexible  motions 
needed  in  bending  the  back. 

300.  The  form  of  the  spinal  column  is  dependent 
chiefly  upon  the  intervertebral  substances. 

301.  The  spinal  column,  viewed  sidewise,  is  not 
naturally  straight  in  any  person,  but  has  a double  curva- 
ture in  all.  The  curvature  is  much  greater  in  some 
than  in  others.  From  a front  or  back  view,  the  spinal 
column  appears  straight,  if  it  is  natural.  (See  Fig.  43.) 

302.  The  intervertebral  substance  not  only  nat- 
urally differs  in  form  and  thickness  in  different  persons, 
but  also  in  quality,  being  very  much  firmer  and  more 
enduring  in  some  than  in  others  ; so  that  injurious  treat- 
ment will  produce  much  more  effect  in  some  persons 
than  in  others.  Dark-complexioned  persons  usually  have 
intervertebral  substances  firmer  than  those  of  light-com- 
plexioned  persons,  and  have  therefore  more  erect  forms. 


Fig.  40. 


298.  What  exists  — ? 299.  — ; what  are  they?  300.  Upon  what  is  — ? 
301.  What  is  the  form  of  — ? 302.  Is  always  the  same?  In  what  persons 

the  firmest  ? 


INTO  OEGANS  AND  THEIR  USES. 


79 


303.  Fig.  40  represents  two  vertebras,  and  3 the 
intervertebral  substance  between  them,  in  its  natural 
condition.  Fig.  41  is  the  same,  with  3 compressed, 
allowing  the  vertebras  to  approach,  and  the  back  to  be 
bent.  On  the  other  hand,  when  the  column  is  bent 
backward,  the  bodies  of  the  vertebras  are  separated, 
and  3 is  stretched.  There  is  a joint  at  4 on  which  the 
vertebras  turn,  or  flex. 

304.  Whenever  the  back  is  curved,  the  cushions 
are  always  either  compressed  or  stretched;  and  their 
elasticity  is  therefore  always  exerted  to  restore  the 
column  to  its  natural  form— and  will  do  it,  unless  force 
is  constantly  exerted  to  counteract  the  tendency  of  the 
substances. 


Fig.  41. 


305.  If  any  part  of  the  intervertebral  substance 
is  continuously  compressed,  it  will  become  permanently 
thinner : thus  deformities  are  produced.  In  fact,  every 
person  will  be  found  a little  shorter  at  night  than  in 
the  morning,  because  the  pressure  upon  the  substances 
during  the  day  has  made  them  thinner.  A friend  of 
the  author  measured  himself  at  eight  one  morning  be- 


303.  What  does  — ? Describe  Fig.  41.  What  would  be  found  at  4 ? 

304.  What  effect  to  be  noticed  — ? What  tends  to  restore  the  flexed  column  ? 

305.  What  effect  — ? 


80 


ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS 


fore  going  out  to  hunt,  and  again  when  he  came  home 
in  the  evening,  when  he  found  he  was  three  fourths  of 
an  inch  shorter.  He  did  not  regain  his  ordinary  height 
till  after  two  nights. 

306.  Clothing,  or  any  occupation,  that  con- 
strains the  back  to  one  position,  tends  to  cause 
pressure  constantly  on  the  same  parts  of  the  interver- 
tebral substances,  and  will  therefore  produce  deformity. 

307.  Freedom  from  constraint  and  frequent 
change  of  position,  is  the  only  means  for  promoting  a 
good  form  of  the  spinal  column. 

Remark. — People  who  do  not  understand  their  own 
structure,  nor  the  effects  of  tight  clothing,  will  try  to  pro- 
duce good  forms  by  using  constraints,  and  endeavoring 
to  constantly  preserve  the  same  position. 

308.  Children  should  not  be  carried,  nor  lain,  nor 
allowed  to  sit,  in  any  position  for  any  great  length  of 
time  together. 

309.  Fig.  42  represents  the  shortening  that  will 
be  produced  by  compression  of  several  of  the  inter- 
vertebral substances  ; the  line  above  showing  how  high 
the  column  would  be,  if  straightened  up  to  its  natural 
position. 

310.  Leaning  much  of  the  time  in  any  direction, 
will  have  the  effect  to  produce  a lateral  or  side  curvature 
of  the  column. 

311.  The  lowest  intervertebral  substance  rests 
upon  the  sacrum — a wedge-shaped  bone,  so  called,  be- 
cause offered  by  some  of  the  ancients  in  sacrifice. 

312.  The  sacrum  terminates  in  several  small  bones 
called  the  coxcyx. 

313.  The  spinal  canal  and  the  spinal  cord  ex- 
tend into  the  sacrum  ; its  nerves  extending  out,  through 
holes,  in  the  front  and  back  parts  of  the  sacrum. 


306.  What  will  be  the  effect  of  — ? 305.  What  the  effect  of  — ? 308.  What 
said  of  the  positions  of  — ? 309.  What  does  — ? 310.  What  effect  has  — ? 

311.  What  said  of  — ? 312.  How  does  — ? 313.  How  low  do  wo  find  — ? 


Fig.  42. 


314.  The  sacrum  is  wedged  in  between,  and  very 
strongly  fastened  to  the  hip-bones  : these,  very  irregular 


What  does  Fig.  42  represent?  Which  is  the  straighter,  Fig.  43  or  Fig.  34  ? 
Does  it  seem  as  if  the  column  43  could  be  made  from  34  ? It  was.  314.  — is 
situated  where  ? 

4* 


82 


ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS 


in  shape,  curve  around  from  the  sides  of  the  sacrum 
till  they  meet  in  front  ; forming  a deep,  bony  ring, 
larger  above  and  narrower  below,  quite  smooth  and 
even  on  the  inner  surface,  but  having  many  inequalities 
on  the  outer  surface.  (See  Fig.  43.) 

315.  The  hip-bones,  with  the  sacrum,  called  the 
pelvis,  form  a kind  of  basin,  adapted  within  to  support 
various  organs  there  located,  and  on  the  outside  to  the 
attachment  of  the  Motory  organs  of  the  lower  limbs. 

316.  The  pelvis  may  be  called  the  fixed  point  in 
the  body,  as  above  and  below  it  all  parts  are  movable 
upon  it.  Upon  it,  firmly  fastened,  stands  the  elastic 
spinal  column,  protecting  within  its  bony  canal  the  im- 
portant spinal  cord.  The  twenty-two  elastic  joints  and 
twenty-four  vertebrae  above  the  sacrum,  permit  such  a 
curvature  that  the  back  can  be  formed  into  almost  a 
circle,  yet,  with  so  small  a curve,  at  any  one  point,  as 
not  to  injure  the  cord. 

317.  In  the  outside  of  the  pelvis  are  hollowed 
deep  cups,  or  sockets,  adapted  to  receive  the  round 
heads  of  the  thigh-bones,  as  shown  by  Fig.  44 — a section 
of  the  pelvis  through  the  hip-joints. 


315.  What  are  — ? 316.  What  may  — ? How  many  joints  in  the  spinal 
column?  317.  What  found— ? Do  you  notice  tho  spongy  appearance  of  the 
inner^part  of  bones  of  the  hip  and  thigh  whore  they  are  cut  across  in  Fig.  44  ? 


Fig..  44. 


INTO  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  USES. 


83 


318.  From  the  hip  to  the  knee  a single  bone, 
called  femur,  extends,  having  a head,  neck,  and  body ; 
the  lower  end  of  which  is  enlarged  for  the  purpose  of 
forming  a strong  knee-joint.  (See  Fig.  45.) 

319.  In  front  of  the  knee-joint  a bone,  called  the 
knee-pan,  or  patella,  is  found.  It  does  not  properly 
belong  to  the  knee-joint,  but  is  to  be  counted  as  an 
appendage'  of  the  muscles  that  act  most  powerfully  by 
its  assistance. 

320.  Below  the  knee-joint,  at  first,  there  is  but 
one  bone — the  shin,  or  tibia ; but  soon  another  bone  is 
found  by  the  side  of  it,  called  the  fibula — a long,  slender, 
and,  on  several  accounts,  very  beautiful  bone.  (See 
Fig.  46.) 


321.  The  lower  ends  of  these  bones  form  the 
inner  and  outer  ankle-joints  ; a socket  being  formed  by 
both  leg-bones,  in  which  the  ankle-bone  of  the  foot  is 
received,  and  moves.  (See  Figs.  46  and  47.) 


318.  What  extends  — ? 319.  What  found  — ? 320.  How  many  hones  in 
the  leg  — ? What  does  Fig.  45  represent?  What  does  Fig.  46  represent? 
321.  What  said  of  — ? 


84 


ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS 


Fig.  47.  Fig.  48. 


322.  The  ankle  is  formed  of  seven  bones,  called 
the  tarsus,  curiously  united,  and  arched  in  several  direc- 
tions so  as  to  form  a very  strong,  but  elastic  instep. 

323.  From  the  tarsus  five  bones — the  metatarsus — 
extend  forward,  completing  the  arches  beneath  the  foot, 
upon  which  the  body  rests  in  walking. 

324.  From  the  metatarsus  the  phalanges,  or  bones 
of  the  toes,  extend,  three  in  each,  except  in  the  large 
toe — and  sometimes  in  the  small  toe,  only  two. 

325.  The  skeleton  of  the  foot  is  a truly  wonderful 
piece  of  mechanism,  and  worthy  of  a prolonged  study, 
if  space  would  permit. 

326.  To  each  side  of  the  twelve  dorsal  ver- 
tebrae of  the  spinal  column  above,  the  twelve  ribs 


What  does  Fig.  47  represent  ? What  does  Fig.  48  represent?  322.  Of  what 
is  — 1 323.  IIow  many  bones,  and  for  what  purpose,  extend  — ? 324.  What 
built  out  — ? 325.  What  said  of— ? 326.  What  attached  — ? 


INTO  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  USES. 


85 


are  attached  ; most  of  them  curving  round  to  become  con- 
nected to  the  breast-bone  by  means  of  strips  of  cartilage. 

327.  Thus  is  formed  the  elastic  framework  of 
the  Chest, — elastic  on  two  accounts  i because  of  the 
elasticity  of  the  dorsal  intervertebral  substances,  and 
because  of  the  elastic  character  of  the  front  ends  of  the 
ribs,  and  of  their  joints  with  the  vertebrae. 

328.  If  therefore  the  ribs  are  raised,  or  low- 
ered, the  elastic  cartilage  tends  to  restore  them  to  their 
natural  position.  The  elasticity  will  assist,  therefore, 
both  in  inhaling  and  exhaling  air. 

329.  If  the  spinal  column  is  curved,  the  ribs  will 
move  accordingly,  and  the  elastic  action  of  the  spinal 
column  may  therefore  assist  in  breathing. 

330.  The  elastic  construction  of  the  Chest  will 
also  permit  flexure  of  the  spinal  column  ; but  as  motion 
backward,  to  a very  great  degree,  would  be  injurious  to 
the  organs  within  the  Chest-walls,  it  will  be  perceived 
that  motion  of  the  Chest  in  that  direction  has  been  pre- 
vented by  having  the  spinous  processes  incline  down 
so  much  that  they  will  restrict  backward  motion,  to  a 
very  limited  degree. 

331.  One,  two,  or  three  of  the  lowest  ribs  are 
not  connected  by  cartilage  to  the  Sternum,  or  breast- 
bone, and  hence  are  called  floating  ribs.  The  cartilages 
of  the  next  two  or  three  ribs  connect  with  the  cartilages 
of  the  ribs  above. 

332.  To  THE  UPPER  EXTREMITY  OF  THE  BREAST-BONE 
two  bones,  called  the  collar-bones,  or  clavicles,  are  joint- 
ed. They  extend  toward  the  shoulder,  where  they  are 
jointed  to  the  shoulder-blade,  or  scapula.  (See  Figs. 
49  and  50 ; see  also  Fig.  59,  where  2 on  one  side  shows 
the  clavicle  bound  in  its  place,  and  2 on  the  other 
shows  it  is  raised  to  exhibit  the  open  joint.) 


327.  — ; why  elastic  ? 328.  What  effect  — ? What  function  assisted  "by 
elasticity?  329.  What—?  330.  What  said  of  — ? 331.  What  peculiar  in  re- 
gard to  — ? 332.  What  attached  — ? 


86 


ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS 


Figs.  49,  50. 


s 


333.  The  use  of  the  collar-bones  is  to  keep  the 
shoulders  out  from  the  ribs ; and  also  to  allow  the 
shoulders,  through  the  collar-bones,  to  turn  on  the  upper 
end  of  the  breast-bone,  as  on  a pivot. 

334.  The  blade,  or  thin  expanded  part  of  the 
scapula,  that  extends  partly  across  the  back,  is  not  the 
most  important  part,  as  is  usually  thought ; it  is  merely 
extended  out  in  this  way,  to  serve  for  the  attachment 
of  muscles  that  are  under,  above,  and  behind  it ; and 
the  use  of  which  is  to  haul  backward,  downward, 
and  upward  the  shoulder-joint,  which  is  the  most  im- 


Can  you  feel  that  Figs.  49  and  50  are  rightly  shaped  ? Can  you  feel  10  of 
Fig.  50?  What  is  the  difference  between  the  shoulder  and  tho  elbow-joints? 
333.  What  is-?  334.  What  said  of  — ? 


INTO  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  USES. 


87 


portant  part  of  the  scapula.  (See  Fig.  51,  representing 
the  back  or  outer  surface  of  the  scapula.) 

335.  The  blades  are  not  jointed  to  the  ribs,  but 
merely  lie  and  move  over  them  ; nor  does  the  position 
of  the  blades  affect  the  form  or  size  of  the  Chest,  though 
the  size  and  form  of  the  Chest  affect  the  position  and 
appearance  of  the  blades. 

Remark. — People  make  a great  mistake  in  thinking 
that  when  the  shoulders  are  drawn  back,  the  Chest  is 
enlarged,  because  more  of  it  is  in  front  of  the  shoulders  ; 
and  that  by  drawing  and  fastening  the  shoulders  back, 
the  Chest  is  also  enlarged,  and  breathing  improved.  It 
is  the  very  reverse  : everything  that  constrains,  injures. 

336.  A shallow  socket  is  wrought  in  the  shoulder- 
end  of  the  scapula,  to  which  is  fitted  the  ball  of  the 
upper  arm-bone — the  humerus  ; a single  bone  extending 
to  the  elbow,  where  it  is  jointed  to  the  ulna,  one  of  the 
bones  of  the  lower  arm.  (See  Fig.  52,  representing  the 
humerus,  or  upper  arm-bone.) 


Fig.  55 — ulna  and  radius  : 4,  point  of  elbow  (olecra- 
non) ; 5,  process  in  front  of  joint  (coronoid)  ; 2,  cavity 
fitting  around  lower  end  of  humerus ; 3,  joint  of  11  with 
ulna  ; 15,  surface  E that  turns  over  on  to  8 of  the  TT ; 
13,  attachment  of  biceps  (muscle). 

* Fig.  56 — upper  end  of  ulna : 1,  olecranon  ; 2,  cavity; 
3,  coronoid ; 4,  ligament  binding  radius  in  5,  the  cavity 
in  which  11  of  55  turns. 


Fig.  56. 


337.  Immediately  below  the  elbow,  and  resting 
against  the  humerus,  though  not  jointed  to  it,  is  another 
bone — the  radius — that  extends,  and  is  jointed  to  the 


335.  To  what  are  — ? Remark. — In  what  do  people  often  err  ? 336.  Where 

in  the  shoulder-blade  is  — ? What  do  Figs.  55  and  50  represent  ? 337^  What 
bone  is  found  — ? 


88 


ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS 


wrist.  The  hand  hangs  upon  the  radius  ; the  ulna 
hangs  upon  the  humerus ; the  radius  and  ulna  lie  side 
by  side,  and  are  jointed  to  each  other  in  such  a manner 
that  the  radius,  particularly  its  lower  end,  can  roll  over 
and  upon  the  ulna,  turning  the  hand  with  it.  (See 
Figs.  55  and  56.) 

338.  This  joint  of  the  radius  and  ulna  is  very 
simple,  yet  one  of  the  most  curious  in  the  body,  and 
certainly  one  of  the  most  useful,  and  most  frequently 
used. 

339.  The  wrist,  or  carpus,  is  constructed  of  eight 
small  bones,  forming  a double  row : the  first  row,  in  a 
ball-form,  is  jointed  to  the  radius,  and  not  at  ail  to  the 
ulna  ; so  that  the  wrist  hangs  wholly  on  the  radius, 
and  the  wrist  and  the  hands  turn  with  the  radius,  which 
can  be  rolled  over  upon  the  ulna;  making  the  hand 
prone  as  quick  as  thought.  (See  Fig.  57.) 

Fig.  57. 


340.  From  the  carpus  the  metacarpus,  of  five 
bones,  extends  to  the  fingers,  in  which  are  the  phalanges, 
three  in  each ; and  in  the  thumb,  two. 


What  bone  is  attached  to  the  humerus,  and  to  which  is  the  wrist  ? 338.  What 
is  said  of  — ? Experiment  in  turning  the  hand  while  feeling  the  hones  in  the 
arm  till  their  motions  arc  understood.  339.  How  is  — ? 340.  What  extends  — % 


INTO  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  USES. 


89 


341.  The  friction  at  all  the  movable  joints, 
especially  those  where  there  is  much  pressure,  makes  it 
necessary  that  they  should  be  oiled,  or  lubricated  with 
a very  glairy  fluid. 

342.  In  any  movable  joint  we  may  perceive, 
not  only  that  the  parts  in  contact  are  finished  off  very 
smoothly  by  means  of  cartilage,  but  that  they  are 
moistened  with  a very  glairy  fluid,  like  diluted  white 
of  egg.  While  the  joint  is  in  health,  a very  minute 
quantity  of  fluid,  yet  sufficient  to  moisten  the  whole 
joint,  is  found  in  it.  This  fluid  is  constantly  poured 
into,  and  as  constantly  removed  from,  the  joint  by 
a beautiful  membrane,  or  skin,  that  lines  the  entire 
joint. 

343.  The  fluid  of  the  joint  is  called  synovia, 
or  synovial  fluid,  and  the  membrane  the  synovial 
membrane.  In  diseases  of  the  joints  this  fluid  some- 
times increases  or  diminishes  from  the  healthy  point ; 
causing  a swelling  or  dryness  of  the  joint,  for  which 
rest  is  the  chief  remedy. 

344.  The  bones  are  bound  together  at  the  mov- 
able joints  by  sinews,  termed  ligaments.  They  some- 
times extend  from  bone  to  bone  in  the  form  of  straps, 
called  flat  ligaments  ; sometimes  they  entirely  surround 
a joint,  when  they  are  called  capsular  ligaments  ; or  they 
are  in  the  form  of  cords,  and  called  round  ligaments. 
In  Figs.  58  and  59  an  example  of  the  capsular  (12,  13, 
and  5)  and  round  (8)  ligament,  is  seen  in  the  same 
joint ; the  former  being  around  the  hip-joint,  and  the 
latter  within  it. 

345.  The  ligaments  are  exceedingly  numerous, 
especially  in  the  hand  and  foot ; extending  from  one 
bone  to  another  in  a very  curious  and  complexed 
manner.  (See  Figs.  58,  59,  60,  and  61.) 


341.  What  necessary  to  relieve  — ? 342.  What  ? How  much  fluid  in  any 
joint?  343.  What  is— ? 344.  How  are — ? How  many  kinds  of  ligaments 
are  there  ? 345.  Where  are  — ? 


90 


ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS 


Fig.  58. 


Fig.  59. 


346.  Figs.  60,  61  and  62,  represent  ligaments  of 
the  breast-bone,  of  the  ankle,  and  of  the  hand. 

347.  Three  substances — bone,  cartilage,  and  liga- 
ment— enter  into  the  structure  of  the  skeleton,  to  which 
(a  fourth)  the  synovial  membrane  is  added  to  pre- 


What  does  Fig.  58  represent?  What  do  the  figures  on  Fig.  58  denote?  Do 
you  notice  10,  called  Poupart’s  ligament?  Between  what  does  it  stretch? 
What  does  Fig.  59  represent  ? 346.  What  do  — ? 347.  What  said  of  — ? 


INTO  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  USES. 


91 


serve  the  joints  perfect ; while  through  many  parts  of 
the  skeleton  (a  fifth  substance)  the  nerves  are  inserted. 


Fig.  62. 


348.  Of  what  use  can  nerves  be  in  the  bones  ? 
While  the  bones  are  sound  their  nerves  are  not  painful — 
indeed,  they  may  then  be  cut  across  without  causing 
pain  ; but  if  the  bones  are  broken,  or  in  any  way  injured, 
requiring  the  most  perfect  quiet  for  their  recovery,  they 
become  exceedingly  painful ; compelling  a motionless 
state  of  the  part  that  no  splints  nor  external  bandages 
could  produce. 

Remark. — Sometimes  the  bones,  when  injured,  do 
not  become  painful,  and  recovery  is  retarded,  or  the 
parts  become  displaced  and  deformed. 

Muscles . 

349.  All  parts  of  the  skeleton,  except  the 
skull,  bear  evidence,  in  their  numerous  joints,  that 
they  are  intended  for  motion  ; and  the  most  hasty 
glance  will  convince  any  one,  that  the  production  of 
motion  was  one  of  the  chief  purposes  for  which  the 
body  was  constructed. 

350.  The  chief  part  of  the  most  exquisite  ar- 


How  many  substances  in  the  skeleton  ? 348.  — ? If  a person's  arm  is 

cut  off  while  in  health,  would  sawing  through  the  bone  hurt  ? 349.  Of  what 
do  — ? What  is  the  comparative  importance  of  motion  ? 


92 


ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS 


rangements  in  the  skeleton,  has  sole  reference  to 
motion,  which,  in  various  ways,  is  of  the  utmost  service 
to  us. 

351.  To  move  the  various  parts  of  the  skeleton, 
it  must  be  clothed  with  living  flesh,  that  constitutes 
the  chief  parts  of  the  muscles.  The  study  of  these  is 
one  of  the  most  useful,  as  well  as  interesting,  divisions 
of  our  subject. 

352.  A muscle  is  constructed  of  lean  meat,  sheaths, 
and  tendons : the  lean  meat  is  the  active  part,  the  sheath 
envelopes  it,  and  the  tendons  strongly  attach  it  to  the 
parts  it  acts  upon. 

353.  The  appearance  of  a muscle  is  easily  ob- 
served in  the  well-cooked  “drumstick”  of  any  fowl, 
since  it  is  easily  separated  into  several  muscles,  having 
short  tendons  above  and  long  ones  below,  reaching  to 
the  claws. 

354.  Each  of  these  muscles,  or  any  piece  of  lean 
meat,  when  cooked,  can  be  easily  separated  into  delicate 
strips,  or  fleshy  strings,  called  fasciculi,  that,  by  the 
assistance  of  a microscope,  can  be  subdivided  into 
threads,  called  fibres  and  fibrillae,  smaller  than  the 
finest  cobweb,  even  smaller  than  can  be  seen  by  the 
naked  eye. 

355.  A FURTHER  EXAMINATION  OF  THE  FIBRE  SHOWS 
that  it  is  composed  of  a delicate  sheath,  and  a substance 
contained  in  it,  in  the  form  of  cells  arranged  end  to  end. 

356.  These  muscle-cells  are  the  true  contractile 
substance  of  the  muscle : when  in  an  uncontracted  state, 
called  relaxed,  they  are  very  soft,  weak,  and  easily 
torn  ; but  when  they  contract,  they  become  endowed 
with  a great  deal  of  power,  and  one  of  the  strongest 
of  substances,  producing  motions  that  are  almost  irre- 
sistible. 


351.  What  necessary  — ? 352.  How  is  — ? 353.  In  what  is— ? 354.  —can 
be  separated  into  what  ? 355.  What  does  — ? 356.  What  are  — ? "What  is 
their  character  when  contracting  ? 


INTO  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  USES. 


93 


357.  Precisely  how  this  contraction  is  caused, 
no  one  knows  ; nor  how  a substance  so  weak  at  one 

-moment  becomes  so  strong  in  another,  is  not  yet  com- 
prehended. What  we  know  is,  that  one  moment  the 
muscular  substance  is  relaxed,  quiet,  and  easily  rent; 
but  if  through  the  nerves  an  influence  (that  we  call 
nervous,  because  we  know  little  about  it,  except  that 
it  is  exerted  through  nerves)  is  exerted  upon  the 
muscle-cells,  they  instantly  begin  to  contract  wdth  great 
power. 

358.  All  muscles  are  essentially  alike.  The  four 
hundred  and  fifty  in  the  body  differ  only  in  size,  form, 
and  position,  but  they  act  precisely  alike.  All  that  any 
muscle  can  do  is  to  produce  motion,  and  by  the  same 
simple  contraction  of  one  or  more  cells. 

359.  The  greater  the  number  of  cells  placed 
end  to  end,  the  longer  will  be  the  muscle,  and  the 
greater  the  extent  of  motion  produced. 

360.  The  greater  the  number  of  cells  side  by 
side,  the  larger  the  muscle  and  the  stronger  it  will  be. 

361.  Wiiat  is  very  wonderful  and  very  ad- 
mirable is,  that  so  many  kinds  and  so  many  varieties 
of  motion,  as  we  see  in  the  human  body,  should  be  pro- 
duced by  combinations  of  a number  of  one  simple  thing  : 
the  muscle-cell,  having  one  simple  property — contraction. 

362.  We  will  now  construct  a muscle  by  arranging 
muscle-cells  end  to  end,  and  thus  producing  fibrillse  : 
a bundle  of  these  we  will  cover  with  a sheath  project- 
ing, more  or  less,  beyond  the  cells,  and  thus  produce  a 
muscular  fibre  ; of  which  we  will  take  several,  and  cover 
them  with  a thicker  sheath  producing  a fasciculus, 
which  may  be  a muscle  ; but,  usually,  several  fasciculi, 
taken  together,  and  covered  with  a sheath,  are  neces- 
sary to  form  a muscle. 


357.  Do  -we  know  — ? What  do  we  know  about  it  ? 358.  In  what  respects 
do  — agree?  how  differ?  359.  What  effect  of  — ? 360.  What  effect  of  — ? 
361.  — ? 362.  — by  doing  what  ? 


94 


ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS 


363.  The  sheaths  projecting  beyond  the  cells, 
more  or  less,  are  condensed  into  pearl-colored  sinews, 
called  tendons,  having  properties  precisely  like  the 
sinews  called  ligaments,  that  tie  the  bones  together ; 
sinew  always  being  very  strong  and  flexible. 


Fig.  63.  Fig.  64.  Fig.  65. 


364.  The  muscles  are  distinguished  from  each 


363.  What  produced  by  — ? What  are  the  two  chief  qualities  of  sinew  ? 
Have  you  noticed  the  cords  on  the  back  of  the  hands,  or  on  the  top  of  the 
feet  ? 364.  IIow  are  — ? 


INTO  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  USES. 


95 


other  by  being  covered  by  distinct  sheaths,  and  by 
having  all  their  sheaths,  at  one  end  or  the  other,  con- 
densed into  a single  tendon. 

365.  The  fibres  of  each  fasciculus  are  always 
parallel  to  each  other ; but  the  fasciculi  of  a muscle  are 
rarely  parallel,  exhibiting  many  different  and  sometimes 
very  curious  arrangements  (see ^plate-page  2)  all,  how- 
ever, for  one  purpose,  viz.,  to  produce  motion  in  the 
best  manner. 

366.  Fig.  63  represents  the  muscles  of  the  front 
part  of  the  thigh  : the  stripes  are  the  fasciculi,  e.  g.,  in  6 
nearly  parallel.  It  is  the  longest  muscle  in  the  body, 
and  is  called  the  eartorius,  or  the  tailor’s  muscle,  be- 
cause, when  it  contracts,  it  draws  up  the  leg  as  when  a 
tailor  sits  on  his  bench.  The  fasciculi  ol  the  other 
muscles  of  the  thigh  are  observed  not  to  be  parallel. 
The  arrangement  of  fasciculi  is  also  seen,  in  Figs.  64 
and  65,  not  to  be  parallel  to  the  action  of  the  muscle. 

367.  The  contraction  of  a fasciculus  must  take 
place  in  the  direction  of  its  fibres ; but  the  contraction 
of  a muscle,  as  a whole,  may  not  be  in  the  direction  of 
any  of  its  fibres. 

Illustration. — If  two  strings  are  tied  to  the  leg  of  a 
chair,  and  two  boys  in  front  of  it  a little  distance  apart 
pull  upon  the  strings,  the  chair  will  not  move  directly 
toward  either,  but  will  move  in  a line  toward  a point 
between  them  ; so  by  the  action  of  the  fasciculi  of  a 
muscle,  it  may  be  shortened,  but  not  in  the  precise 
direction  of  either  of  them. 

368.  Sometimes,  indeed  often,  upon  the  same 
principle,  several  different  muscles  must  conjoin  their 
action  to  produce  a given  motion  not  in  the  direction  of 
the  action  of  either  muscle. 

369.  The  beauty,  or  some  convenience  of  a part, 


365.  What  is  true  of  — ? 386.  What  does  — ? 367.  What  said  of  — ? 

Illustration.— IIow  will  a chair  move  if  acted  on  by  two  forces  operating 
from  different  directions  ? 368.  How  do  muscles  act  — ? 369.  What  does  — ? 


96 


ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS 


often  requires  that  a muscle  shall  he  located  in  such  a 
position  that  the  direction  of  its  contraction  is  very  dif- 
ferent from  that  of  the  required  motion,  that  can  he  pro- 
duced only  by  having  the  tendons  of  the  muscle  pass 
under  some  band,  or  round  some  bone,  as  seen  in  Figs.  64 
and  65. 


Fig.  66.  Fig.  67. 


370.  Fig.  66  represents  the  under  surface  of  the 
foot  dissected  ; the  tendon  (3),  branching  to  the  toes, 


How  are  the  tendons  in  64  and  65  arranged  in  regard  to  the  muscles  and 
the  motion  they  produce  ? "What  does  Fig.  66  represent  ? "What  does  Fig.  67 
represent  ? 


INTO  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  USES. 


97 


extends  from  the  muscle  above  down  the  side  of  the 
ankle  at  4,  as  is  also  represented  in  Fig.  64. 

371.  At  13  (Fig.  65)  is  represented  a band  of 
sinewy  fibres,  called  a ligament  5 extending  from  one 
ankle  to  the  other,  and  binding  down  upon  the  instep 
the  tendons  that  curve  under  it  to  extend  to  the  toes : 
thus  the  muscles  in  the  leg  act  under  it  upon  the  toes. 

372.  At  16  (Fig.  67)  is  represented  a ligament 
that,  like  a bracelet,  encircles  the  wrist  just  beneath 
the  skin ; binding  down  the  tendons  in  their  place 
when  the  hand  is  turned  upon  the  wrist-joint  or  the 
fingers  are  opened  and  shut. 

373.  The  arrangement  of  the  fasciculi  of  a 
muscle,  is  usually  such  that  the  muscle  acts  disadvan- 
tageous^, and  must  be  composed  of  more  substance 
than  would  be  necessary,  if  the  fasciculi  could  be  so 
arranged  as  to  act  most  directly. 

374.  The  muscles  are  also,  from  necessity,  so 
arranged  as  a usual  thing  that  they  cannot  act  to  the 
greatest  advantage,  as  it  regards  power. 

375.  The  muscles  are  usually  so  arranged  and 
attached  that  a given  motion  will  be  produced  in  the 
least  time , no  matter  what  the  increased  amount  of 
power  required. 

Illustration. — If  we  apply  our  hand  to  a gate  near 
its  hinge,  we  can  shut  it,  if  we  use  the  requisite  force, 
quicker  than  we  can  if  we  apply  our  hand  near  the 
latch. 

376.  If  the  muscle  on  the  front  part  of  the  arm 
had  been  attached  near  the  wrist,  less  force  would 
have  been  required  to  raise  the  hand,  than  is  now  the 
case,  but  it  could  not  have  been  raised  so  quickly. 

377.  From  this  fact,  that  power  is  always  sacri- 
ficed to  the  saving  of  time,  we  can  learn  the  value  of 


371.  What  — ? 372.  What  — ? 373.  What  usually  is  — ? 374.  How  are — ? 
375.  How  are  — ? What  is  the  — ? 376.  What  — ? 377.  What  can  we 

learn  ? 


5 


98 


ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS 


time  as  it  has  been  valued  by  the  Creator.  lie  has 
wisely  made  us  to  produce  motions  quickly,  even  at  a 
great  loss  of  power  sometimes. 

378.  There  are  three  or  four  other  forms  in 
which  the  fasciculi  are  found:  1st.  In  the  form  of 
rings,  as  round  the  mouth  and  in  the  eyelids,  when  by 
contraction  they  close  the  opening  around  which  they 
are  placed.  2d.  Rings  are  placed  side  by  side,  or  the 
fasciculi  extend  around  and  diagonally,  forming  a tube. 
3d.  The  fasciculi  are  in  layers,  or  interwoven  more  in- 
timately in  the  form  of  a pouch,  as  in  the  Stomach  and 
Heart.  4th.  The  fasciculi  are  in  a membranous  form, 
as  in  the  Diaphragm,  making,  with  the  direct,  five 
different  forms  or  plans  of  muscles. 

379.  By  these  five  different  forms  of  muscle 
every  perceptible  kind  of  motion  can  be  produced : and 
all  these  forms  of  muscle  have  been  constructed  from 
one  kind  of  element — the  simple  muscle-cell. 

380.  To  EXCITE  THE  MUSCLE-CELLS  TO  CONTRACT,  it 
has  been  shown  that  they  must  be  brought  under  some 
influence.  It  is  called  nervous,  because  exerted  through 
nerves ; but  the  nerves  are  merely  cords  through  which 
the  influence  is  exerted.  The  influence  must  be  pro- 
duced in  a Nervous  Centre,  or  Ganglion,  and,  from  the 
centre,  act  through  the  nerves  upon  the  muscle-cells. 

381.  Every  muscle  must  therefore  be  connected 
with  at  least  one  Nervous  Centre  by  means  of  a nerve, 
or  nerves  : nerves  must  be  interwoven  through  every 
muscle  to  such  an  extent  that  the  Nervous  Influence 
can  be  active  upon  every  muscle-cell  in  the  muscle. 

382.  Again,  whenever  a muscle-cell  contracts, 
some  part  of  it  becomes  useless,  and  must  be  removed, 
and  new  substance  must  be  laid  down  in  its  place,  or 
the  muscle  will  soon  be  impoverished. 


378.  — : what  are  they  ? 379.  What  effects  produced  — ? 380.  What  is 

necessary  — ? What  is  the  influence  called  ? Whero  produced  ? 381.  With 
what  must  — ? 382.  What  effect  — ? 


INTO  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  USES. 


99 


383.  A CONSTANT  AND  WONDERFUL  CHANGE  IS  THERE- 
FORE taking  place  in  every  active  muscle. 

384.  To  ACCOMPLISH  THE  LIVING  CHANGE  IN  THE 
muscle,  an  exquisitely  fine  net-work  of  capillary  Blood- 
tubes  must  be  woven  throughout  the  muscle  and  around 
all  its  fibrils : into  these  capillaries,  the  arteries  must 
open  on  one  side  ; while,  on  the  other,  the  capillaries 
open  into  veins. 

385.  Thus  from  and  by  the  arteries  the  blood  is 
poured  into  the  capillaries,  through  the  delicate  sides 
of  which,  by  a wonderful  living  action  not  well  under- 
stood, the  substance  which  was  muscle  enters  the  capil- 
lary, and  parts  of  the  blood  leave  the  capillary  to  become 
living  muscle. 

386.  The  blood,  more  or  less  changed,  flows  on, 
through  the  capillaries,  into  the  veins  to  allow  its  place 
to  be  occupied  by  a fresh  pulse  from  the  artery. 

387.  The  more  active  the  muscle,  the  more  blood 
it  will  need ; and  chiefly  by  its  own  action,  the  muscle 
supplies  itself  with  a greater  amount  of  blood  than  it 
needs. 

388.  It  is  very  evident  that  when  a muscle  con- 
tracts, it  becomes  firm,  and  will  press  out  the  blood 
contained  in  its  blood-vessels — a part  backward  into  the 
arteries,  but  the  chief  part  onward  into  the  veins,  in  the 
natural  course  of  the  blood. 

389.  When  a muscle  relaxes,  it  is  soft  and  flabby  ; 
and  the  artery  can  not  only  pour  back  what  it  received 
from  the  muscle  contracting,  but  it  can  add  largely  to 
that  : little  will  return  from  the  veins,  as  they  are 
plentifully  supplied  with  valves  that  prevent  the  blood 
from  flowing  back  into  them. 

390.  Thus  the  alternate  contraction  and  re- 
laxation of  muscles  will,  as  it  were,  pump  the  blood 


383.  Where  does  — ? 384.  What  necessary  — ? 385.  What  effected  — ? 

386.  What  said  of  — ? 387.  What  will  he  necessary  — ? 388.  What  is  — ? 

389.  What  is  the  effect  — ? 390.  — will  do  what  ? 


ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS 


ioo 

through  them : indeed,  each  muscle  may  be  called  a 
heart  adapted  to  assist  in  the  circulation  of  the  blood. 

391.  Several  very  important  facts  can  now  be 
understood:  1st.  If  the  muscle  is  contracted  for  too 
long  a time,  it  will  suffer  harm,  because  its  parts  are 
becoming  useless  all  that  time. 

392.  2d.  A HORSE  WILL  BE  IN  A BETTER  CONDITION 
if  he  draw  a heavy  load  and  travel  slowly,  than  if  he 
draw  a light  load  and  travel  rapidly ; because,  in  the 
latter  case,  his  muscles  are  not  relaxed  so  much 
of  the  time  as  to  permit  a thorough  repair  of  them  : 
for  the  same  reason  the  rapid  movements  of  sewing 
women  are  more  exhausting  than  heavier,  slower  labors 
would  be. 

393.  3d.  After  a given  time,  whatever  the  motion, 
slow  or  quick,  the  muscles  will  require  a period  of  entire 
and  prolonged  repose,  or  they  will  become  so  exhausted 
that  they  can  never  recover — at  least  not  fully. 

Illustration  1. — A person,  when  his  house  was  on 
fire,  worked  so  earnestly  and  so  long  that  he  was  at  last 
exhausted,  and  has  not  been  able  for  years  even  to  turn 
himself  in  bed. 

Illustration  2. — A man  wishing  to  sell  a horse, 
said  he  had  driven  him  eighty-eight  miles  between 
sunrise  and  sunset.  Another  replied  that  he  would  like 
to  buy  a horse  that  could  do  that,  but  not  one  that  had 
done  it. 

Illustration  3. — I have  known  several  cases  of 
young  children  walking  so  far  as  to  become  exhausted, 
and  never  after  have  the  power  of  using  their  legs : 
great  care  should  be  taken  to  relieve  children  when  they 
complain  of  being  tired,  or  show  signs  of  fatigue. 

394.  4th.  Exercise  of  the  muscles  promotes  an 
appetite,  because  they  then  use  up  a large  amount  of 


What  may  each  muscle  be  called?  391.  What  said  of  — ? 392.  When 
will  — ? 393.  What  necessary  for  the  good  of  tho  muscles  — ? Illustra- 
tion 1st  ? 2d  ? 3d  ? 394.  Why  does  — ? 


INTO  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  USES. 


101 


material  from  the  blood  that  must  be  replenished  from 
food. 

395.  5th.  Exercise  of  the  muscles  furnishes  to 
the  blood  a large  amount  of  substance  that  must  be 
removed  from  the  blood  by  the  appropriate  eliminating 
organs  : one  of  them  is  called  the  intestinal  canal,  the 
activity  of  which  is  therefore  promoted  by  exercise. 

396.  6th.  The  contraction  of  the  muscles  by 
propelling  the  blood  through  themselves,  also  impels  it 
through  every  part  of  the  body. 

Remark. — Thus  the  muscles,  when  active,  drive  a 
large  quantity  of  blood  through  the  bones,  and  facilitate 
their  growth,  and  their  increase  of  strength,  precisely 
correspondent  to  the  increased  strength  of  the  muscles. 

397.  The  change  that  takes  place  in  the  muscles 
is  also  attended  by  the  production  of  heat ; therefore 

398.  The  contraction  of  the  muscles  assists  in 
warming  the  body  in  two  ways : by  the  direct  produc- 
tion of  heat,  and  by  the  more  rapid  circulation  of  blood, 

399.  If  the  contraction  of  the  muscles  has  a 

TENDENCY  TO  INCREASE  THE  FLOW  OF  THE  BLOOD,  it  will 

be  necessary  to  have  the  hearts  also  contract  more 
rapidly,  as  all  the  blood  is  measured  through  the  hearts 
at  each  circuit. 

400.  The  hearts  are  caused  to  beat  more  rapidly 
when  the  muscles  contract,  by  means  of  nerves  com- 
mencing in  the  muscles,  and  leading  to  Nervous  Centres 
that  act  on  the  heart,  and  regulate  its  beats. 

Illustration. — If  a person  lies  down,  the  hearts 
beat  slowest,  because  the  fewest  muscles  are  active  ; 
the  instant  he  sits  up,  the  heart’s  action  is  quickened  by 
several  beats  per  minute,  because  the  muscles  need  more 
blood  ; standing,  the  pulses  are  still  more  frequent, 
quicker  when  walking,  and  yet  more  numerous  when 


395.  What  does  — ? 396.  What  effect  produced  by  — ? 397.  What  at- 

tends — ? 398.  How  is  the  body  warmed  by  — ? 399.  What  is  necessary  — ? 
400.  How  are — ? Illustration? 


102 


ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS 


running : try  the  experiment,  and  see  how  wonderfully 
the  action  of  the  heart  is  regulated  to  the  demands 
upon  it. 

Remark. — The  necessity  of  the  Nervous  Circulatory 
Apparatus,  and  the  readiness  with  which  it  acts,  is  quite 
apparent. 

401.  Thus  do  we  learn  some  of  the  most  impor- 
tant lessons  : 1st,  that  we  should  not  long  remain  in 
one  position  ; if  we  do,  certain  muscles  are  constantly 
contracted,  and  thus  enfeebled. 

402.  We  learn,  2d,  that  we  should  not  clothe  any 
part  of  the  body  tightly,  or  in  such  a manner  as  to 
prevent  the  free  contraction  and  relaxation  of  the 
muscles : the  tight  clothing  of  the  chest,  therefore,  pre- 
vents the  free  action  of  its  muscles,  and  they  grow 
weak,  and  the  movements  cannot  then  be  graceful. 

403.  We  learn,  3d,  that  to  promote  both  appetite, 
and  the  regular,  healthy,  eliminating  action  of  the 
Digestory  Canal,  we  must  take  an  abundance  of  mus- 
cular exercise. 

404.  We  learn,  4th,  that  one  way  to  promote  a 
free  circulation  of  blood  through  the  brain,  and  thus 
clear  it  of  impurities,  and  give  it  fresh  blood  in  abun- 
dance (enabling  the  student  to  return  to  his  work)  ; or 
to  give  warmth,  life,  and  beauty,  to  the  skin,  or  any 
other  organ,  is  to  exercise  the  muscles. 

405.  There  are  about  450  involuntary  muscles 
that  may  be  considered  as  so  many  voluntary  hearts — 
all  at  our  will  to  be  called  into  action  for  the  purpose 
of  increasing  the  circulation  of  blood.  Man  is  therefore 
more  than  half  heart — one  inside,  beating  night  and 
day  ; the  other  outside,  consisting  of  the  numerous 
voluntary  muscles,  as  shown  by  plate-page  2,  ready  to 
be  called  into  action  whenever  necessary. 


401.  — what  are  they,  1st  ? 402.  What  do— ? 403.  What  do  — ? 404.  What 
do  — ? 405.  — as  what  ? What  proportion  of  a person’s  body  may  be  con- 
sidered as  heart,  and  of  use  in  assisting  to  circulate  the  blood? 


INTO  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  USES. 


103 


406.  The  muscles  are  never  selfish  when  they 
act  to  bring  blood  into  themselves  : they  also  distribute 
it  more  rapidly  to  all  parts  of  the  body. 

Remark. — The  number  of  the  muscles,  their  posi- 
tion, the  parts  to  which  they  are  attached,  and  the 
effect  of  their  action,  can  be  judged  by  looking  at  the 
various  Figures  representing  them. 

Nerves  of  the  Muscles . 

407.  To  the  eye,  a nerve  is  a very  soft  or  pulpy 
white  cord ; but  under  the  microscope,  that  which  can 
be  seen  by  the  naked  eye  is  shown  to  be  a bundle  of 
delicate  threads  not  as  large  as  a cobweb,  composed 
of  a sheath  filled  with  a very  delicate  substance. 

408.  When  a nerve  is  said  to  branch,  what  is 
meant  is,  that  the  bundle  of  the  little  threads,  which 
are  in  fact  the  nerves,  is  divided  into  two  or  more 
bundles ; the  trunk  of  a nerve  being  composed  of  the 
same  number  of  nerves  as  are  found  in  its  branches: 
thus  all  the  nerves — that  is,  the  elementary  nerves — ex- 
tend from  the  centres  to  the  parts  thus  connected  with 
the  centres.  Therefore,  all  parts  of  the  body  are  repre- 
sented at  the  brain,  and  all  parts  may  be  said  to  be  con- 
structed in  the  brain,  and  present  there  as  much  as  if 
they  really  were  included  in  the  skull,  in  the  same  manner 
as  in  the  eye  we  see  all  the  world  brought  in  by  light. 

409.  Nerves  through  which  the  voluntary 
muscles  are  acted  on,  must  extend  from  the  head, 
where  the  mind  has  its  seat,  to  the  muscles.  (See 
Fig.  2 and  plate-page  3.) 

410.  But  the  mind  must  also  know  precisely  how 
much  the  muscles  are  contracted  ; and  when  any  muscle 
is  contracting,  a knowledge  of  its  condition  must  be 
constantly  brought  to  the  mind. 


406.  Why  are  — ? 407.  What  is  a nerve  — ? 408.  What  is  the  case  — ? 
Are  then  all  parts  of  the  body  represented  by  the  ends  of  the  nerves  at  the 
centres  ? 409.  What  said  of  — ? 410.  What  must  — ? 


104 


ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS 


411  The  mind  can  be  informed  about  the  con- 
traction of  a muscle  only  by  having  another  set  of 
nerves  (spoken  of  before  as  a second  set  of  nerves) 
extending  from  the  muscles  to  the  head. 

412.  When  the  nerves  are  examined  quite  near 
to  the  spinal  cord,  they  are  found  to  be  composed  of 
two  parts,  or  roots,  as  they  are  called,  which  are  found 
to  have  two  uses : if  the  front  root  is  cut,  all  control 
over  the  muscles  to  which  it  belongs,  is  lost  ; if  the 
back  root  is  cut,  all  sensation  in  the  part  is  lost ; nor 
can  a person  know  how  much  any  muscle  is  contracted. 

413.  Two  kinds  of  nerves,  therefore,  connect  the 
muscles  with  the  brain  : through  one,  the  influence  that 
causes  the  contraction  of  the  muscles  goes  out ; through 
the  other,  the  influence  by  which  the  mind  learns  the 
condition  of  the  muscles  flows  in. 


Fig.  68  represents  a section  of  the 
spinal  cord,  with  1,  2,  the  roots,  as 
they  are  called,  of  nerves  extending 
from  it  on  each  side : 1 is  motory  ; 2 is 
sensatory ; beyond  3 they  are  enclosed 
in  one  sheath,  and  no  longer  distin- 
guishable. All  the  spinal  nerves  are 
similar  ; where  they  arise  from  the 
spinal  cord,  they  are  seen  to  be  nu- 
merous : they  are  equally  so  in  their 
sheath. 

414.  The  influences  pass  out  and  in,  through  the 
two  kinds  of  nerves,  with  the  rapidity  of  lightning ; so 
that  the  mind  hardly  notices  how  it  does  its  work. 

415.  Again  * it  is  very  important  to  notice,  that, 
through  the  centripetal  or  sensatory  nerves  (viz.,  those 
through  Avhich  the  muscles  exert  an  influence  on  the 
brain),  sensations  of  pleasure,  or  of  pain,  are  produced, 
according  to  the  condition  of  the  muscles. 


411.  How  can  — ? 412.  What  found  — ? What  difference  in  the  effects 

when  the  front  or  back  root  is  cut  ? 413.  Describe  the  — ? What  does 

Fig  68.  represent  ? 414.  How  do  — ? 415  What  — ? 


INTO  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  USES. 


105 


416.  If  the  muscles  are  not  exercised  as  much  as 
they  should  he,  very  unpleasant  sensations  are  caused ; 
which  is  also  the  case  if  they  are  exercised  too  much ; 
hut  if  they  are  exercised  perfectly,  they  will  he  the 
cause  of  a very  high  and  desirable  degree  of  enjoy- 
ment : they  will  still  cause  another  kind  of  sensation,  if 
diseased  or  injured. 

417.  To  exercise  properly  is,  therefore,  to  enjoy 
life  in  a double  sense  : directly,  by  the  sensations  the 
muscles  cause;  and,  secondarily,  by  the  increased  health 
and  comfort,  generally,  that  their  exercise  produces. 

Motory  Ganglia . 

418.  It  has  been  seen  that  the  skeleton  has  the 
number  and  kind  of  joints  that  will  permit  every  de- 
sirable motion ; that  muscles  adapted  to  produce  every 
motion,  clothe  the  skeleton ; that  their  substance,  when 
perfect,  has  at  all  times  the  property  of  contracting,  but 
will  not  contract  till  a proper  influence  excites  it,  which 
influence  is  conducted  through  nerves,  themselves  passive. 

419.  To  LEARN  THE  SOURCE  OF  THE  INFLUENCE,  We 
must  trace  the  nerves  from  the  muscles  to  their  inner 
extremities ; some  of  which  we  shall  find  commencing 
in  the  spinal  cord,  and  others  ex- 
tending up  the  cord  to  the  brain. 

420.  Nerves  always  commence 
in  a grayish,  very  delicate,  pulpy 
substance,  formed,  in  part,  of  cells 
which  are  supposed  to  be  the  source 
of  the  Nervous  Influence : any  col- 
lection of  such  substance  is  called  a 
Nervous  Centre,  of  Ganglion. 

421.  Fig.  69  represents  a mag- 
nified view  of  a part  of  a Nervous  Centre,  or  Ganglion  : 


416.  What  effect  — ? What  effect  if  too  much  ? If  perfectly  ? If  diseased  ? 
417.  — is  what  ? 418.  — that  what  is  necessary  to  produce  motion  ? 419.  How 
proceed  to  — ’?  420.  How  do  — ? 421.  What  does  — ?. 

5* 


106 


ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS 


1,  two  filaments  of  nerves  connecting  with  large  cells ; 

2,  4,  chain  of  cells  ; 3,  undeveloped  cells. 

422.  The  reddish-gray  color  of  the  Ganglia  is 
owing  to  the  very  great  number  of  minute  Blood-tubes 
which  are  found  there,  and  which  prove  that  the  gray 
is  a very  active  part ; thus  : 

423.  Nervous  substance  is  classed  as  the  active 
or  gray  part,  and  the  passive  conducting  or  white  part ; 
the  latter  only  is  found  in  the  nerves,  while  in  the 
Ganglion  both  are  found. 

424.  In  the  Nervous  Centres,  probably  in  their 
cells,  Nervous  Influence  is  produced,  and  thence  dis- 
charged through  or  along  the  nerves  to  the  muscles, 
that  instantly  contract  : how  produced,  conducted,  or 
how  it  acts,  or  what  is  its  nature  in  other  respects,  is 
not  known. 

Remark. — Sometimes  it  is  compared  to  electricity, 
galvanism,  and  magnetism,  but  incorrectly.  It  is  one 
of  the  most  wonderful  things  in  Nature,  but,  when  un- 
derstood, will  doubtless  be  found  the  most  simple. 

425.  How  LARGE  A NERVOUS  CENTRE  ANY  MUSCLE 
requires  to  excite  its  most  powerful  contraction,  we  do 
not  know,  as  we  have  no  means  of  measuring  the  power 
of  a centre : some  are  very  small,  and  others  large. 

426.  There  appears  to  be  no  good  reason  for 
supposing  that  the  centre  for  each  muscle  is  distinct. 
It  seems  that  they  are  run  together  in  groups,  corre- 
sponding to  the  groups  of  muscles  to  which  they  be- 
long ; and  that  these  groups  of  centres  are  also  so 
arranged  that,  when  necessary,  they  can  act  together ; 
thus  : 

427.  In  the  entire  length  of  the  central  parts 
of  the  spinal  cord  (see  Fig.  68)  the  gray  substance 
exists.  Therefore,  it  must  be  a continuous  Nervous 


422.  What  causes  — ? 423.  How  is  — ? 424.  What  produced  — ? 425.  Is  it 
known  — ? 426.  For  what  does  — ? 427.  What  is  found  — ? What  must  the 
spinal  cord  be  ? 


INTO  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  USES. 


107 


Centre  or  series  of  centres,  the  lower  ones  of  which 
belong  to  the  muscles  of  the  lower  limbs,  the  middle 
ones  to  the  Trunk-walls,  and  the  upper  ones  to  the 
upper  limbs  and  neck  ; while  at  the  very  upper  and 
back  part  of  the  spinal  cord,  or  of  its  extension  into 
the  cranium,  there  is  a very  large  centre  or  Ganglion, 
usually  called  the  small  brain,  or  cerebellum. 

428.  The  cerebellum  extends  its  influence  over 
all  the  groups  below,  or  else  it  acts  directly  upon  all 
the  muscles,  since  they  are  all  under  its  influence. 

429.  Does  the  mind  exist,  or  exert  a direct  in- 
fluence in  the  spinal  cord,  or  cerebellum  ? Cer- 
tainly not  ; and  Ihis  thought  suggests  several  very 
interesting  facts. 

430.  In  some  diseases  persons  will  be  troubled  by 
a contraction  of  certain  muscles  which  they  cannot 
control.  The  reason  is,  the  centres  belonging  to  those 
muscles  in  the  spinal  cord  are  diseased,  and  exert  an 
improper  and  uncalled  for  influence.  When  this  disease 
is  extensive,  it  is  called  St.  Vitus’s  dance.  This  involun- 
tary action  of  the  centres  is  very  easily  brought  on  by 
imitation  of  those  truly  affected  ; therefore,  children 
should  be  careful  not  to  imitate  such  motions. 

431.  A LARGE  PART  OF  THE  REGULAR  MOTIONS  OF 
the  Voluntary  Apparatus  is  not  controlled  by  the 
mind,  but  takes  place  regularly,  by  means  of  the  in- 
fluence exerted  by  the  centres  in  the  cord. 

Illustration. — A carpenter  walks  upon  the  highest 
timbers  of  a frame  as  he  would  on  the  ground,  balanced 
by  the  action  of  his  cerebellum  and  spinal  cord.  His 
mind  could  not  do  it ; if  it  tries,  it  will  throw  him  off" : 
he  learned  to  walk  there  by  simply  learning  to  mind 
nothing  about  it,  but  leave  it  to  the  cerebellum. 

432.  Precisely  how  the  mind  exerts  an  influence, 


428.  To  what  does  — ? 429.  — ? 430.  Why  do  the  muscles  twitch  — ? 

431.  Does  the  mind  control  — ? Illustration.— How  can  a person  walk  on  a 
timber  ? 432.  Do  we  know  — ? 


108 


ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS 


IN  PART,  IN  PRODUCING  ANY  DESIRABLE  MOTION,  and  how 

the  rest  is  effected  by  the  Involuntary  Centres,  we 
cannot  now  say ; but  we  know  that  the  mind  is  relieved 
from  overseeing  the  details  necessary  in  producing  any 
motion  it  directs  : details  are  produced  by  the  associated 
action  of  the  centres  to  which  the  motion  belongs. 

433.  It  is  of  great  consequence  that  ave  know, 
that  the  promptness  and  ease  with  which  the  involun- 
tary actions  of  the  muscles  are  produced  and  associated, 
depends  very  much  upon  habit , and  that  bad  habits  are 
as  easily  acquired  as  good  ones,  and  each  kind  is  equally 
easy  when  acquired.  We  must,  first,  learn  to  rightly 
do,  then  quickly  do.  A child  should  at  first  be  taught 
to  speak  distinctly,  sing  correctly,  write  well,  walk 
properly,  move  gracefully  ; all  of  which  will  result  from 
practice  long  enough  and  carefully  enough  continued. 

434.  Exercise  of  the  muscles  requires  exercise 
of  the  centres  that  cause  their  contraction ; therefore, 
muscular  exercise  is  not  only  for  the  purpose  of  im- 
proving and  strengthening  the  muscles,  but  especially 
for  the  purpose  of  exercising  the  Nervous  Centres,  and 
associating  their  action  so  as  to  produce  habits  of  action. 

435.  It  is  also  very  important  to  notice  in  this 
connection,  that  the  character  of  the  action  of  the 
muscles  is  very  much  influenced  by  the  state  of  the 
mind ; so  that  the  expression  of  the  face,  the  tones  of 
fhe  voice,  the  gestures  of  all  parts  of  the  body,  involun- 
tarily exhibit  the  emotions. 

436.  It  is  therefore  important,  if  we  would 
exhibit  any  emotion,  to  really  have  it,  as  it  will  be 
altogether  impossible  to  perfectly  imitate  what  we  do 
not  truly  feel. 

437.  In  reviewing  the  organs  of  motion,  we  per- 
ceive that  perfection  of  motion  depends  upon  the  elas- 


How  are  the  details  of  any  motion  regulated  ? 433.  — what  ? How  should 
a child  he  taught  any  motions  ? 434.  — of  what  ? 435.  What  is  — ? 436.  What 
is  — ? 437.  What  noticed  — ? 


INTO  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  USES. 


109 


ticity  of  the  skeleton  and  its  joints,  upon  the  muscles, 
and  their  exercise,  upon  the  properly  associated  action 
or  habits  of  the  Motory  Nervous  Centres,  upon  mental 
control,  and  particularly  upon  the  activity  and  state  of 
the  emotions,  which  leads  us  to  a new  section. 


INTELLECTORY  APPARATUS;  ITS  ORGANS. 

EMOTORY  APPARATUS;  ITS  ORGANS. 

438.  It  is  desirable  to  consider  these  organs 
under  one  head,  because  in  describing  either  we  must 
describe  the  brain,  to  which  they  are  confined,  and  of 
which  they  constitute  the  chief  part  : indeed,  these 
organs  and  the  cranial  parts  of  the  Motory  and  Sensa- 
tory  Apparatus  are  so  intimately  associated  that,  to  be 
understood,  they  must  all  be  spoken  of  together. 

The  Bra  i n . 

439.  If  the  cranium  was  transparent,  or  could 
be  removed  without  affecting  its  contents,  they  would 
appear  to  be  composed  of  four  parts  : below  the  spinal 
cord  they  would  be  found  enlarged,  forming  a part  call- 
ed the  medulla  oblongata  ; from  this,  backward,  a large 
Ganglion  grows  out,  called  cerebellum  ; while  above 
the  oblongata  seems  to  spread  out  into  two  very  Jarge 
Ganglia,  called  cerebri,  separated  by  a deep  fissure  on 
the  middle  line,  and  filling  all  the  upper  parts  of  the 
cranium. 

440.  The  cerebri  have  a very  smooth  surface,  as 


What  are  the  topics  of  Sec.  2?  438.  Why  is  it  — ? What  other  parts, 

organs,  or  Ganglia  form  the  "brain  ? 439.  What  would  he  seen  — ? 440.  When 
do  the  — ? 


Skeleton 


Sec.  2. 


110 


ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS 


they  are  covered  by  a very  delicate  skin,  called  arach- 
noid, or  spider’s  web ; but  when  this  is  removed,  their 
surface  is  very  uneven,  looking  like  the  surface  of  a 
peach-stone  on  a large  scale. 

441.  The  cerebellum  is  but  slightly  uneven  ; quite 
a grove  being  found  at  its  middle  line,  indicating  that  it 
is  to  be  considered  as  double ; so  is  the  oblongata. 

442.  The  whole  brain  is  therefore  divisible  into 
right  and  left,  often  called  hemispheres ; though  the 
whole  is  shaped  more  like  an  egg  than  like  a sphere. 

Fig.  70.  In  this  view 
of  the  brain  inverted, 
the  cerebellum  (7 ) is 
seen  above  the  back 
part  (posterior  lobe)  of 
the  cerebrum  and  the 
shelf  between  them  ; 
the  oblongata  (30)  is  in 
view ; also  the  pons 
(16)  and  the  commence- 
ments of  twelve  pairs 
of  nerves  : 1,  2,  is  the 
anterior  and  posterior 
part  of  the  deep  fis- 
sure nearly  dividing  the 
cerebri ; 3,  anterior ; 4, 
middle  lobes  ; the  con- 
volutions of  the  under 
surface  of  which  are 
evidently  numerous,  as 
they  also  are  above  the 
cerebellum. 

443.  The  cerebri  are  separated  from  each  other, 
and*from  the  cerebellum,  by  partitions  in  the  cranium 
formed  by  its  lining — a strong  skin  with  a smooth  mois- 
tened inner  surface ; it  descends  from  the  middle  line  of 
the  cranium  between  the  cerebri,  and  extends  forward 


When  do  cerebri  have  an  uneven  surface  ? 441.  What  is  the  surface  of  — ? 
442.  How  is  — ? Describe  Fig.  70.  Is  it  a view  of  the  under  or  upper  surface 
of  the  brain  ? 443.  How  are  — ? 


INTO  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  USES. 


Ill 


from  the  inner  back  part  of  the  cranium  under  the  back 
part  of  the  cerebri,  supporting  them  and  preventing 
them  from  pressing  on  the  cerebelli.  By  this  means 
the  cavity  of  the  cranium  is  partially  divided  into  three  ; 
the  central  part  being  common  to  all. 


*Fig.  71. 


444.  Fig.  71  represents  the  cranium,  face,  and 
neck,  divided  near  the  middle  line  (to  the  left)  to  show 
(36)  the  falx,  and  (37)  the  tentorium ; through  the  oval 
opening  under  the  falx,  35  is  seen  on  the  inner  surface 
of  the  right  side  of  the  cranium.  Many  interesting  facts 
are  beautifully  shown  by  this  cut,  to  which  reference 
will  be  often  made. 


Into  how  many  cavities  is  the  cranium  partially  divided?  Where  are  they 
situated  ? 444.  What  docs  — ? What  is  shown  of  the  connections  of  the 
throat— how  many,  and  with  what  ? 


112 


ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS 


Fig.  72. 


Fig.  72  represents  the 
cerebri  sliced  down  to  the 
upper  surface  of  (4)  the 
bridge  (corpus  callosum)  of 
fibres  that  extends  across 
from  one  to  the  other ; 

5,  5,  are  the  deep  fissures 
behind  and  before,  that  ex- 
tend up  between  the  parts 
removed  ; the  bottom  of 
the  middle  part  of  the  fis- 
sure is  represented  length- 
wise the  centre  of  4 : this 
fissure  is  occupied  by  the 
falx,  the  lower  edge  of 
the  central  part  of  which 
touches  (4)  the  ends  sink- 
ing down  at  5,  5 : 1 is  the 
white  tissue,  its  fibres  being 
interlaced  by  fine  sinewy 
fibres ; the  dots  show  sec- 
tions of  a few  capillaries 
extending  among  them ; 2, 
the  gray  tissue,  the  dark 
line  indicating  the  depth  of 

the  division  between  touching  portions  of  the  surface  of  the  gray  tissue. 


445.  Fig.  72  represents  the  brain  sliced  down 
nearly  to  the  bottom  of  the  falx,  shown  by  the  line  (4) 
extending  over  a bridge  of  fibres  that  extends  across 
from  one  cerebrum  to  the  other,  connecting  the  two : 
1 represents  the  fibrous  parts  of  the  Ganglia,  sur- 
rounded by  the  gray  part ; the  dots  show  the  Blood- 
tubes  in  the  white  part,  while  in  the  gray  part  they 
are  innumerable. 

446.  The  prominences  of  the  gray  part  are 
called  convolutions ; the  indentations  are  called  anfrac- 
tuosities  ; the  black  lines  in  their  centres  show  the 
depth  of  the  indentation. 

447.  This  arrangement  of  the  gray  part  is  for 


445.  What  does  — ? If  the  gray  part  should  be  spread  out,  how  much 
more  extensive  would  it  appear  to  be?  446.  — what?  What  are  anfrac- 
tuosities  ? 447.  What  necessity  for  this  peculiar  — ? 


INTO  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  USES. 


113 


the  purpose  of  allowing  a large  quantity  of  it  in  a small 
space,  to  be  easily  reached  by  a multitude  of  Blood- 
tubes  on  the  one  side  to  bring  material,  and  a large 
number  of  nerves  on 
influence  produced. 

Fig.  73  represents  the 
brain  sliced  a little  lower 
than  in  the  preceding  figure : 

1,  the  white  tissue  ; 2,  the 
gray ; 3, 4,  the  front  and  back 
portions  of  the  bridge,  or  cor- 
pus callosum, — the  middle 
portion  being  removed,  and 
exposing  the  ventricles,  in 
which,  and  forming  the  sides 
and  floor  of  which,  Ganglia 
are  seen.  Portions  of  the 
brain  are  cut  out  to  show 
(7  and  6)  extensions  of  the 
ventricles  ; 8 is  one  of  the 
largest  Ganglia,  and,  from 
the  white  and  gray  substance 
being  in  alternate  layers,  it 
appears  striped, — hence  its 
name,  striated  body  (corpus 
striatum) ; 19,  portion  of  tha- 
lamus ; 14,  hippocampus ; 18. 
a plexus  of  capillary  vessels 
(the  choroid  plexus). 

448.  Fig.  7 3 represents  the  cerebri  sliced  a little 
lower  down,  exhibiting  a large  number  of  Ganglia  in 
their  central  part,  which  can  also  be  brought  to  view 
at  the  summit  of  the  oblongata  by  raising  the  sides 
of  the  cerebri,  which  are  laid  around  or  spread  over  the 
central  Ganglia  for  the  purpose  of  forming  an  egg-shaped 
brain  that  can  be  covered  more  protectingly. 

449.  In  these  central  Ganglia  the  same  arrange- 
ment OF  GRAY  AND  WHITE  SUBSTANCE,  AS  IN  THE  CEREBRI 


From  what  is  nervous  influence  produced  ? In  what  ? Sent  through  what  ? 
448.  What  does  — ? How  can  the  central  Ganglia  be  also  brought  into  view  ? 
What  shape  of  cranium  is  best  ? 449.  Is  there  needed  — ? 


114 


ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS 


above,  will  not  be  found,  nor  is  it  necessary.  The 
arrangement  varies  in  nearly  every  one. 

450.  One  of  the  best  ways  of  becoming  familiar 

WITH  THE  GENERAL  APPEARANCE  OF  THE  BRAIN,  is  tO  ex- 
amine and  slice  up  the  brains  of  different  animals. 

451.  The  nervous  substance  will  be  noticed  to  be 
very  different  from  muscle  ; and  it  would  be  natural 
to  suppose  that  food  would  be  required  to  supply  its 
needs  different  from  that  required  by  muscles : this  is 
the  case. 

452.  The  large  quantity  of  blood  constantly 
flowing  through  the  brain,  shows  that  it  is  very 
active,  and  that  it  will  require  much  food  of  the  peculiar 
kind  essential  to  satisfy  its  necessities. 

453.  To  perfect  the  brain,  and  enable  it  to  ac- 
complish the  most,  we  must  by  appropriate  use  of  the 
brain  gradually  cause  its  Blood-vessels  to  become  en- 
larged, and  a large  flow  of  blood  to  be  poured  through 
them.  For  this  purpose  the  action  of  the  brain  must 
not,  while  young,  be  too  long  or  too  urgently  produced, 
but  it  should  be  exercised  regularly  and  systematically, 
day  by  day,  during  its  entire  growth. 

454.  Do  WE  KNOW  WHAT  THE  DIFFERENT  GANGLIA 
are  for  ? Not  perfectly  well : the  use  of  some,  we 
know;  that  of  some,  we  conjecture;  and  of  some,  say 
not.  We  learn  the  use  of  some  by  means  of  the  nerves 
that  terminate  or  commence  in  them ; but  the  nerves 
are  so  fine  and  so  delicate  that  it  is  very  difficult  to  trace 
any  of  them — and  in  case  of  most  it  has  not  been  done ; 
that  of  others  we  learn  by  experiment  and  observation. 

455.  We  observe  that  various  muscles  “twitch” 
when  we  do  not  wish  that  they  should  ; and,  again,  we 
control  them  perfectly,  while  often  their  mode  of  action 
will  be  affected  very  much  by  our  emotions. 


450.  What  is  — ? 451.  Is  the  muscular  like  — ? Is  it  like  any  other  tissue  ? 
452.  What  is  shown  by  — ? 453.  What  should  be  done  — ? 455.  Wlmt 

easily  can  — ? 


INTO  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  USES.  115 

456.  Certain  substances,  swallowed  or  breathed, 
excite  certain  emotions  : laughing  gas  has  its  effect, 
ether  its  effect,  &c.,  despite  our  wish. 

457.  Various  diseases  exhibit  peculiar  effects,  ac- 
cording to  the  portion  of  the  brain  diseased. 

458.  At  different  periods  of  life  different  emo- 
tions exhibit  themselves  with  greater  or  less  activity. 

459.  Many  other  arguments  might  be  used  to 
show  that  some  of  the  central  Ganglia  of  the  brain  are 
Emotory  ; others,  Sensatory  ; that  the  cerebri  are  chiefly 
Intellectory,  and  the  cerebelli  and  spinal  cord  chiefly 
Motory.  We  will  return  to  this  again. 

Emotor^17  \ 0l'Sans  = GanSlia 


Sec.  3. 

SENSATORY  APPARATUS;  ITS  ORGANS. 

460.  We  have  already  seen  the  necessity  for 
Sensatory  organs,  since  the  mind  must  be  constantly 
made  acquainted  with  the  degree  of  the  contraction  of 
the  muscles ; and  we  have  seen  that  two  kinds  of  nerves 
have  been  provided  : one  for  the  purpose  of  exciting 
contraction  in  the  muscles,  and  the  other  for  exciting 
the  Nervous  Centres. 

461.  But  the  mind  requires  knowledge  of  the  con- 
dition not  only  of  the  muscles,  but  of  all  other  parts  of 
the  body,  the  dangers  to  which  they  are  exposed,  &c. ; 
for  which  purpose  it  is  necessary  to  have  nerves  com- 
mence in  every  part,  and,  directly  or  indirectly,  connect 
with  the  brain  : thus  all  parts  can,  and  in  some  states 
do,  cause  sensations. 


456.  What  said  of  effect  of  — ? 457.  Whao  effect  of  — ? 458.  What 

shown  — ? 459.  What  might  he  shown  ? What  are  the  Intellectory  and  Emo- 
tory organs  called  ? Subject  op  Sec.  3.— 460.  How  — ? 461.  Of  what  does  — ? 


116 


ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS 


462.  The  sensations  that  different  parts  of  the 
body  will  cause  when  acted  upon  by  the  same  agents, 
are  very  different. 

463.  The  skin,  which  is  made  a watchful  outpost 
to  guard  the  body  from  every  attack,  is  very  painful, 
however  injured  ; but  if  one  of  the  tendons  or  cords 
of  the  hand  should  be  exposed,  it  might  be  pricked 
with  a red-hot  needle,  and  a person  not  feel  it,  yet  if 
twisted  ever  so  little,  it  would  be  painful ; the  bone, 
if  sound,  may  be  sawn  across  without  a twinge,  while 
touching  a nerve  in  a tooth  produces  extreme  pain. 
Dr.  Beaumont  says,  that  if  he  touched  the  inside  of 
Alexis  St.  Martin’s  stomach,  he  did  not  feel  or  even 
know  it  ; and  Harvey  said  he  grasped  the  heart  of  a 
living  man,  so  injured  as  to  expose  that  organ,  without 
his  feeling  it,  while  the  least  particle  in  the  windpipe  is 
very  distressing.  . I have  seen  a small  portion  of  ex- 
posed brain  cut  off  while  the  man  was  talking,  and  he 
did  not  know  it  ; yet  the  brain  can  cause  extreme  pain. 

464.  The  sensations  of  hunger  that  different 
organs  produce  when  they  require  food,  are  very  differ- 
ent : the  sensations  produced  when  food  is  required  to 
warm  the  body,  and  to  nourish  the  muscles,  are  what 
we  most  frequently  experience,  and  are  chiefly  felt  in 
early  years,  and  are  those  usually  called  hunger  ; but 
the  sensations  caused  by  the  brain  when  it  requires 
food,  though  very  different  from  the  former,  should  be 
equally  recognized  as  hunger — and  should  be  so  called — 
and  satisfied  by  eating  the  proper  food,  properly  pre- 
pared : this  is  a very  important  fact. 

465.  But  the  mind  must  also  know  where  the 
part  is  that  is  causing  the  sensation.  Now  something 
very  curious  is  to  be  noticed : though  the  sensation  is 
caused  in  the  head,  through  the  nerves,  it  will  usually 


462.  What  said  of  — ? 463.  What  said  of  — ? Of  a tendon?  Bone? 

A tooth.  ? The  Stomach  ? The  heart  ? The  "brain  ? 464.  What  said  of  — ? 
Of  Branial  hunger  ? 465.  What  must  — ? 


INTO  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  USES.  117 

seem  to  the  mind  that  the  sensation  is  in  the  part  where 
the  nerve  commences,  through  which  the  sensation  has 
been  caused. 

Illustration. — If  at  the  elbow  we  should  prick  a 
nerve  that  commences  in  the  finger,  a sensation  of  pain 
would  be  experienced  in  the  mind,  and  it  would  seem 
to  be  in  the  little  finger,  just  as  when  we  strike  the 
elbow  (“funny  or  crazy  bone  ”)  we  seem  to  feel  in  the 
finger.  Now,  if  the  hand  should  be  cut  off  anywhere 
below  the  elbow,  precisely  the  same  effect  would  be 
produced,  and  it  would  seem  to  the  person  that  he  had 
a little  finger  yet. 

466.  The  illustration  proves  that  sensations  are 
felt  and  produced  in  the  head  wherever  they  are  per- 
ceived, or  seem  to  be.^  This  is  very  important  to  ob- 
serve ; for  the  Ganglia  being  diseased,  or  the  nerve  also 
being  diseased,  sensations  are  produced  that  have  their 
origin  in  them,  yet  are  attributed  to  the  organs  in 
which  the  nerves  commence,  because  the  pain  seems  to 
be,  or  is  perceived,  in  the  organs. 

Illustration. — Persons  have  insisted  on  having 
sound  teeth  drawn,  because  the  Ganglia  or  nerves,  being 
diseased,  have  caused  severe  pain  that  seemed  to  be  in 
the  teeth. 

467.  In  some  cases,  strange  to  say,  and  for  which  we 
cannot  give  any  reason,  sensations  are  produced,  and 
referred  to  different  organs  from  those  which  excited 
them. 

Illustration. — Disease  of  the  liver  sometimes  causes 
sensations  that  seem  to  be  under  the  shoulder-blade. 
A deranged  Stomach  will  cause  a headache.  Children 
often  rub  the  nose  when  the  Digestory  canal  is  irri- 
tated. 

468.  Sensations  apparently  pelt  in  a part,  taken 


Illustration.— If  we  strike  a certain  point  of  the  elbow?  466.  What 
does  — ? Are  sound  teeth  extracted?  467.  Does  pain  direct  attention  to  the 
right  organs?  Illustration. — Mention  some  eauses.  468.  What  said  of  — ? 


118 


ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS 


by  themselves  alone,  are  not  always  safe  indications 
of  the  seat  of  disease. 

469.  Those  organs  in  which  Sensatory  nerves 
commence  are  called  organs  of  sense ; which,  therefore, 
include  all  parts  of  the  body,  except  the  nerves  them- 
selves, and  the  Ganglia ; and  subjective  organs  of  sense, 
because  they  inform  the  mind  in  regard  to  the  body 
itself. 

470.  But  the  mind  also  requires  a knowledge 
of  the  objects  that  are  around  the  body,  and,  for  this 
purpose,  must  be  furnished  with  objective  organs  of 
sense,  viz.,  through  which  objects  can  act  upon  the 
nerves ; how  many  ? 

471.  By  means  of  the  skin  already  furnished  as  a 
part  of  the  body,  and  as  its  protection,  the  mind  can 
learn  much : the  presence  of  objects  in  contact  with  the 
body  and  their  temperature,  and  some  ideas  of  their 
surfaces  and  form,  can  be  learned. 

472.  The  skin  is  called  the  organ  of  the  sense  of 
touch,  or,  when  particularly  applied,  of  tact. 

473.  By  means  of  the  muscles  the  mind  can  learn 
more  than  by  the  skin.  The  muscular  sense  is  one  of 
the  earliest  in  use  of  all  the  senses : it  enables  the  mind 
to  judge  of  the  density  and  firmness  of  objects,  their 
form  and  size ; of  their  distance,  weight,  force,  &c. 

474.  The  muscles,  when  applied  to  learn  the 
nature  of  objects,  are  called  the  organs  of  the  muscular 
sense. 

Remark. — Organs  of  sense  and  organs  of  sensa- 
tions have  this  distinction  : the  former  are  part  of  the 
latter ; these  also  include  nerves  and  Ganglia. 

f Organs  of  sense 
Organs  of  Sensation  = •]  Nerves 
( Ganglia 


469.  What  arc  — ? 470.  But  of  what  also  does — ? 471.  What  learned — ? 
472.  What  is  — ? 473.  What  learned  — ? 474.  — to  the  purposo  of  gaining 
knowledge  are  called  what  ? 


INTO  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  USES. 


119 


475.  It  will  be  particularly  desirable  for  the 
mind  to  know  the  quality  of  the  food  we  eat,  and  of 
the  air  we  breathe. 

Th  e Mouth . 

476.  To  learn  the  quality  of  food,  a nerve  of 
taste  has  been  added  to  the  nerve  of  touch  in  the  skin 
of  certain  parts  of  the  mouth ; so  that,  in  addition  to 
being  an  organ  for  grinding  and  dissolving  the  food,  it 
becomes  an  organ  of  the  sense  of  taste ; and  the  neces- 
sity for  eating  is  thus  wisely  made  an  enjoyment. 

The  Nose. 

477.  Very  near  to  the  surface  of  certain  parts 

OF  THE  DELICATE  LINING  OF  EACH  NOSTRIL,  a nerve  of 

smell  commences,  and,  extending  up  through  the  roof 
of  the  nose,  unites  with  the  Ganglion  directly  above  : in 
addition  to  this  the  nerves  of  touch  are  also  found  there. 
(See  Fig.  74  : 1,  Ganglia  ; 8,  nerves  of  smell ; 2,  3,  nerves 
of  touch.) 


475.  Wliat  will  — ? 476.  How  are  we  able  — ? Wbat  two  offices  does  tlio 
month  fulfil  ? 477.  What  is  found  — ? Are  there  nerves  of  touch  in  the 

nose  ? Describe  Fig.  74. 


120 


ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS 


478.  The  air  loaded  with  minute  odorous  par- 
ticles drawn  through  the  nose,  bears  the  particles 
against  the  surface  over  the  nerves,  and  they  are  acted 
upon,  and  the  sensation  of  smell  caused. 

479.  The  nose,  therefore,  in  addition  to  being  a 
breathing  orifice,  is  an  organ  of  the  sense  of  smell. 

480.  But  it  is  also  desirable  that  the  mind 
should  have  means  of  learning  something  of  objects 
at  a distance  from  the  body,  for  which  something  must 
act  between  the  objects  and  the  body.  Now — 

481.  There  are  two  things  around  and  between  us 
and  other  objects  : the  air,  that  can  act  between  us  and 
near  objects  ; and  light,  that  can  act  between  the  nearest 
and  most  distant  objects  and  our  bodies  ; therefore, 

482.  We  must  be  furnished  with  two  kinds  of 
organs  of  sense  : one  to  be  acted  upon  by  light,  and  the 
other  by  air ; and  as  there  are  no  parts  of  the  body  to 
which  nerves  of  sight  and  hearing  could  be  added,  organs, 
called  special  organs  of  sense,  must  be  constructed. 

The  Eye . 

483.  Through  the  eye  the  mind  learns  the  colors 
and  directions  of  objects.  The  use  of  the  eye  is  depend- 
ent on  the  nature  of  light,  which  is  of  several  differ- 
ent varieties,  producing  different  sensations  of  color. 
Light  always  passes  in  a straight  line  till  obstructed  by 
some  object  by  which  it  is  deadened,  through  which  it 
passes,  and  is  bent,  or  by  which  it  is  reflected. 

Illustration. — The  light  that  enters  the  eye  from 
the  most  distant  star,  has  been  years  travelling  in  a 
straight  line,  nor  changed  its  direction  in  the  least ; 
and  the  star  appears  to  be  in  the  direction  from  which 
that  light  entered  the  eye,  though,  perhaps,  the  star  has 
meantime  moved  millions  of  miles  away. 


478.  What  effect  is  produced  by  — ? 479.  What  is  — ? 480.  What  is 
also  — ? 481.  — what  are  they  ? Therefore  — with  what  ? 483.  — what  ? 
Illustration.— How  long  and  far  will  light  move  in  a straight  line  ? 


INTO  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  USES. 


121 


Fig.  75. 


484.  The  white  of  the  eye  (1,  Fig.  76)  is  a dense 
sinewy  case,  called  the  sclerotic  or  hard  coat,  having  a 
window  (2),  called  cornea  (horny),  inserted  in  front,  and 
an  opening  (a)  in  the  back  part  for  the  nerve,  the  sheath 
(15)  of  which  is  continuous  with  1,  as  seen. 

485.  The  iris  or  colored  part  (6),  with  a circular 
opening  (7),  is  a very  delicate  and  beautiful  muscle, 
or  two  muscles — a circular  one  that  by  contraction 
lessens  the  pupil,  and  a diverging  one  that  enlarges  it. 

486.  The  space  between  the  cornea  and  the  iris, 
and  behind  it,  is  filled  with  a wTatery  fluid — the  aqueous 
humor. 

487.  11  is  the  transparent,  crystalline  lens,  about 
the  same  density  as  the  cornea. 

488.  13  appears  like  a jelly,  and  is  called  vitreous 
humor,  but  is  a watery  fluid  in  the  cells  of  a very  deli- 
cate transparent  membrane. 

489.  8 is  the  retina,  chiefly  constructed  of  the 
nerves  (16)  spread  out  upon  the  vitreous  humor  to 
receive  the  action  of  the  light  entering  the  eye. 

490.  3,  the  choroid  coat,  is  mostly  constructed  of 


What  does  Fig.  75  represent  ? 484.  Describe  — . 485.  Describe  — . 

486.  What  fills  — ? 487.  What  is  11  \ 488.  Deserve  how  — . 489.  — des- 

cribe. 490.  Describe  — . 

6 


122 


ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS 


Blood-vessels,  and  is  colored  a very  deep  brown,  almost 
black ; its  use  is  to  nourish  the  retina,  or  nerves,  and, 
as  it  is  thought,  destroy  the  light  that  has  acted  on  the 
nerves. 


Fig.  76. 


Fig.  76  represents  the  action  of  the  eye  ( a ) upon  light  coming  from  one 
point  only  of  each  of  the  candles  (b,  y,  r).  All  the  light  that  can  enter 
the  pupil  is  bent  or  refracted  to  the  points  (r,  y>  b)  on  the  retina  (3),  con- 
nected with  the  nerve  (1).  If  there  had  been  a thousand  more  points  from 
which  light  comes,  it  would  have  acted  on  a thousand  more  points  in  3. 

491.  If  the  eye  is  perfect,  all  the  light  from  one 
point  of  an  object  that  enters  the  pupil  will  be  bent  or 
refracted  to  a point,  or  focus,  on  the  nerves,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  76  ; but  the  light  from  another  point  of  the  ob- 
ject will  not  act  on  the  same,  but  on  another,  point  of 
the  nerves ; and  thus  the  light  from  all  the  points  of  all 
the  objects  before  the  eye,  will  be  refracted  to  points 
in  the  retina  perfectly  distinct,  however  near  to  each 
other. 

492.  When  the  light  acts  upon  the  nerve,  two 
effects  are  produced  through  its  Ganglia : a sensation 
of  color,  according  to  the  kind  of  light  that  has  acted ; 
and  an  idea  of  the  direction  from  which  the  light  has 
come,  which  idea  is  due  to  our  nature.  We  have  been 
made  so  as  to  believe  that  when  a point  of  the  retina  is 
acted  upon,  the  object  producing  the  effect  is  in  a certain 


Do  you  observe  that  by  the  action  of  the  eye  (Fig.  76)  the  light,  from 
one  point  of  each  of  three  candles,  acts  upon  its  own  point  of  the  retina  ? 
491.  What  effect-:?  492.  What  effect  — ? 


INTO  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  USES. 


123 


direction  ; it  seems  to  be  so,  and  we  unhesitatingly  be- 
lieve it ; and  if  everything  is  perfect  and  natural,  the  ob- 
ject will  be  in  the  line  of  direction  in  which  we  believe 
it  to  be. 

Illustration. — If  we  press  on  the  eye,  looking  at  an 
object,  the  direction  of  the  object  seems  to  change, 
because  the  light  from  it  is  made  to  act  on  a new  point 
of  the  retina,  and  the  object  will  seem  to  be  in  the  line 
of  direction  that  belongs  to  the  new  point  acted  on  ; 
but  to  the  other  eye  there  is  no  change,  and  the  object 
seems  to  be  in  two  directions  at  once,  and  therefore 
seems  to  be  double. 

493.  The  larger  the  pupil,  the  more  light  ad- 
mitted, and  the  more  intense  the  effect ; hence  the  iris 
regulates  the  size  of  the  pupil  to  the  amount  of  light. 

494.  Ip  the  eye  is  imperfect,  the  light  may  be 
brought  to  a focus  before  it  reaches  the  retina,  pro- 
ducing short  sight ; or,  in  other  cases,  it  may  not  be 
brought  to  a focus  when  it  reaches  the  retina,  thus 
causing  long  sight : in  either  case  the  sight  will  be  in- 
distinct, and  can  be  corrected  by  glasses.  Near  sight  is 
frequently  brought  on  by  reading  much  with  the  page 
near  the  eye  : this  should  not  be  allowed  in  case  of  those 
who  can  see  well.  Short  sight  can  often  be  improved 
by  endeavoring  to  see  objects  at  a distance  ; hence,  a 
voyage  often  improves  near-sightedness. 

495.  The  method  of  seeing  is  very  simple,  and 
can  easily  be  understood,  if  a description  of  it  is  not 
confused  by  drawing  attention  to  images  in  the  eye, 
and  other  like  incidents  of  the  structure  and  action  of 
the  eye. 

496.  A visible  point,  or  the  point  of  an  object, 
that  is  seen,  is  the  smallest  point  from  which  light  can 
act  upon  a distinct  point  in  the  eye.  How  many  of  these 


Illustration. — What  is  the  effect  of  pressure  on  the  eye  ? Try  the  ex- 
periment. 493.  What  effect  — ? 494.  What  result  — ■ ? 495.  What  said  of  — ? 
498.  What  is— ? 


124 


ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS 


are  to  be  considered  as  belonging  together  to  make  up 
one  object,  depends  upon  circumstances — as  we  call  a 
leaf,  a limb,  a tree,  or  a forest,  an  object : what  are  seen 
are  the  points ; and  the  grouping,  of  more  or  less  of 
them,  is  done  by  the  mind. 

497.  There  are  but  three  simple  colors — red  (3), 
yellow  (5),  blue  (8),  which,  acting  together,  produce 
white  (16) : the  two  former  produce  orange  (8) ; the 
two  latter,  green  (13)  ; the  first  and  last,  purple  (11). 
The  number  exhibit  the  natural  proportions  of  each 
color.  All  the  thousand  different  sensations  of  shades 
of  color,  and  all  the  pleasure  they  excite,  are  dependent 
upon  the  proportions  in  which  these  three  different 
colors  act  upon  the  nerves,  the  order  in  which  they  act, 
and  the  rapidity  with  which  they  succeed  each  other  in 
acting. 

498.  The  eyes  are  constantly  active  during  the 
day ; therefore,  they  should  be  acted  on  successively  by 
different  kinds  of  light : looking  at  one  kind  soon  varies 
the  eye,  and  the  color  loses  its  brightness  ; therefore, 
dress,  furniture,  &c.,  should  be  so  colored  that  the  eyes 
may  be  acted  on  by  all  the  colors  in  due  proportion. 

499.  To  arrange  colors  in  good  taste,  the  eye 
must  be  so  cultivated  that  it  can  direct  their  arrange- 
ment in  accordance  with  the  constitution  of  light  and 
of  the  eye. 

500.  As  the  eye  can  receive  light  only  from 
objects  nearly  in  front  of  it,  it  is  desirable  to  have 
the  power  of  turning  it  in  various  directions : this  will 
call  for  muscular  action. 

501.  The  eye  rests  on  a cushion  of  fat,  and  is 
drawn  forward,  and  also  turned  in  certain  directions,  by 
two  muscles.  Its  chief  motions  are  produced  by  four 
straight  muscles — one  on  each  side,  one  above,  and  the 


497.  — ; what  are  they?  Their  proportions  in  white  light?  498.  What 
to  be  done  since  — ? 499.  What  necessary  — ? 500.  — what  is  desirable? 

501.  — what  ? 


INTO  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  USES. 


125 


fourth  below— (see  Fig.  11*).  The  tendon  of  5 must  be 
noticed  passing  round  the  loop-tendon  6 ; the  direction 
of  the  action  of  that  muscle  is  very  different  from  the 
motion  it  .causes,  for,  while  the  contraction  of  the 
muscle  draws  the  tendon  back,  it  draws  the  eye  for- 
ward ; at  8 the  lower  muscle — inferior  oblique — is  at- 
tached to  the  side  of  the  socket,  so  that  by  contraction 
it  tends  to  draw  the  eye  forward,  and  also  turns  it  upon 
its  axis ; 4 is  a muscel  that  extends  over  the  eye  into 
the  upper  eyelid,  and  raises  it. 

Fig.  77  represents  a 
section  of  the  socket  of 
the  eye  and  that  organ 
with  its  muscles  in  situ ; 

4,  the  muscles  that  ele- 
vates the  lid,  a part  of 
which,  with  the  lashes, 
has  been  cut  off  and  left 
with  the  muscle;  10, 
points  to  the  loop  of  lig- 
ament round  which  (11) 
the  tendon  of  the  muscle 
(9)  turns,  a bursa  being 
interplaced  to  prevent 
friction.  A further  de- 
scription of  the  muscles 
of  the  eye  will  be  given 
when  that  organ  is  de- 
scribed. 

502.  To  wipe  the  eyes  from  time  to  time,  the 
winking  lids  are  pro- 
vided with  circular 
muscular  fibres  (see 
Fig.  5)  to  close  the 
eyes. 

503.  The  tear- 
fluid,  to  keep  the  eye 


FIG.  77. 


Does  the  superior  oblique  muscle  (9)  draw  the  eye  backwards  or  forwards  ? 
How  is  the  eyelid  raised  ? Describe  Fig.  77.  Describe  Fig.  77*.  502.  — what 
is  used  — ? 503.  How  is  the  eye  supplied  with  — ? 


126 


ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS 


moist,  is  poured  down  into  the  eye  through  minute 
tubes  that  open  upon  the  inner  surface  of  the  upper 
eyelid,  high  up,  and  emit  the  fluid  from  a small  organ, 
called  the  tear-gland,  situated  just  within  the  socket 
of  the  eye,  above  the  outer  part  of  it. 


Fig.  78. 


Fig.  .78  represents  the  left  eyelids,  cut  through  as  far  from  their  open- 
ing as  possible,  and  the  lachrymal  gland  drawn  from  its  place,  with  the 
lids  turned  toward  the  nose,  to  show  the  inner  surface  of  the  lids,  in 
which  the  meibomian  glands  (6)  are  seen,  opening  at  the  edges,  between 
which  the  lashes  are  seen : 14,  numerous  openings  of  the  ducts  (9, 10) 
from  the  gland  (7,  8)  ; 12,  13  are  the  minute  openings  at  the  inner  corner 
of  the  lids.,  through  which  the  tear-fluid  passes  to  the  nose. 

504.  The  fluid  is  carried  from  the  eye  through 
two  channels  of  very  small  size,  leading  from  the  inner 
point  of  each  lid  to  the  head  of  a tube  about  the  size 
of  a crow-quill,  the  lower  end  of  which  is  in  the  nose. 

Illustration. — When  something  irritates  the  inner 
surface  of  the  nose,  the  eye  will  water  ; this  fluid  will 
soon  disappear,  passing  down  into  the  nose  to  wash 
away  the  offending  substance. 


What  does  Fig.  78  represent  ? Where  are  the  meibomian  glands  in  which 
the  gummy  matter  of  Che  eyelids  is  formed  ? 504.  How  is  — ? Why  does  the 
eye  water  ? 


INTO  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  USES. 


127 


Fig.  79  represents  the  tubes, 
leading  from  the  eye  to  the  nose  ; 
1 are  the  openings  (12, 13,  Fig.  78) 
into  the  tubes  (2,  3),  uniting  at  4,  and 
leading  the  tear-fluid  into  5,  that 
terminates  at  6 in  the  cavity  of  the 
nose.  Hence,  by  holding  the  nose, 
and  blowing,  the  air  can  sometimes 
be  made  to  pass  up  into  the  eye,  or 
by  setting  the  fluid  back  cause  it  to 
wash  from  the  eye  a speck  that  is 
injuring  it.  Above  the  outer  part 
of  the  opening  for  the  eye,  the  tear 
gland  is  represented. 

T h e E a r. 


Fig.  79. 


505.  The  ear  is  constructed  of  three  parts — the 
outer,  middle,  and  inner  ear. 


Fig.  80  is  a beautiful 
view  of  the  ear  : 1,  exter- 
nal, 2 middle,  3 inner  ear; 
13,  a section  of  the  air- 
tube,  which  section  ex- 
tends through  the  front  of 
2,  and  the  middle  of  19 — 
a tube,  called  Eustachian, 
leading  to  back  part  of 
nostril.  If  a person  close 
the  nose  and  mouth,  and 
blow  air  from  the  lungs, 
it  will  press  up  that  tube 
into  2,  and  produce  a ring- 
ing : 14,  bottom  of  tube  ; 
it  is  a tremulous  membrane 
that,  acting  on  nerves,  de- 
termines force  ; 22,  semi- 
circular canals,  that  deter- 
mine quality  ; 24,  cochlea, 
that  determines  pitch  ; 18, 
bones  of  ear. 


Fig.  80. 


Describe  Fig.  79.  What  is  the  second  special  organ  of  sense  ? 505.  How 
is — ? Describe  Fig.  80.  Try  the  experiment  mentioned— blowing  the  air 
up  into  the  middle  ear  (2).  How  are  foi»ce,  quality,  and  pitch  produced.? 


128 


ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS 


506.  The  external  ear  includes  also  the  tube 
leading  inward  for  half  an  inch  to  an  inch  when  it 
is  closed  by  the  skin  extending  across  it. 

507.  The  middle  ear,  or  drum,  is  a cavity  about 
the  size  and  form  of  a kidney-bean,  opening  below  by  a 
long  slender  tube  into  the  upper  and  back  part  of  the 
nose,  through  which  hearing  is  sometimes  effected  when 
a person  has  a cold,  the  lining  of  nose  and  drum  being 
continuous. 

508.  Across  the  middle  ear  a chain  of  small  bones 
extends  from  the  external  membrane  to  the  internal 
membrane  that  covers  an  opening  into 

509.  The  internal  ear  filled  with  fluid  that  can 
act  on  the  nerves  that  extend  from  this  part  to  the 
Ganglia  of  hearing  in  the  brain. 

Fig.  81. 


Description  of  Fig.  81 : My  External  tube ; Z>,  Drum  ; Ey  Eustachian  tube ; 
JV}  Nerve. 

510.  Fig.  81  is  a rude  plan  of  the  ear  to  illustrate 
the  mode  of  hearing.  The  air  pulsates  upon  the  ex- 


506.  What  does  — ? 507.  What  is  — ? 508.  What  stretches  — ? 509.  With 
what  is  — ? 510.  What  — ? Into  how  many  parts  would  you  divide  the  ear 
according  to  Fig.  81  ? 


INTO  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  USES. 


129 


ternal  membrane,  which  acts  through  the  chain  of  bones 
upon  the  internal  membrane : this  acts  upon  the  fluid  of 
the  labyrinth,  and  the  nerves  of  hearing  are  impressed. 
There  are  very  delicate  muscles  to  act  upon  the  external 
membrane  and  chain  of  bones,  and  regulate  their  tensity. 

511.  It  is  wonderful  that  so  many  different  sounds 
can  be  produced  in  so  simple  a manner,  nor  is  the  matter 
fully  understood. 

512.  Proper  exercise  and  culture  will  very  much 
improve  all  the  organs  of  hearing ; though  there  is  a 
great  natural  difference  between  different  persons  in  this 
respect — more  perhaps  than  in  the  other  organs  of  sense. 

513.  The  ears  are  entirely  separate  ; and  often 
a person  has  one  ear  that  is  perfect,  even  a good  ear  for 
music,  and  with  which  he  can  hear  well,  while  the  other 
is  closed. 

514.  Hardness  of  hearing  is  often  caused  by  the 
hardening  of  ear-wax,  which  can  be  softened  by  oil, 
and  then  removed  by  soap  and  warm  water ; often  by 
disease  of  the  throat  in  childhood,  extending  up  into 
the  ear,  or  by  colds ; in  each  of  which  cases  great  care 
should  be  taken  to  avoid  taking  cold. 

515.  The  use  of  the  ear  is  to  inform  us  of  the 
presence  of  objects,  to  warn  us  of  impending  dangers, 
to  call  to  each  other,  to  enable  us  to  converse  together 
most  readily,  and  to  add  to  the  pleasures  of  life. 

516.  Our  judgment  of  the  direction  of  objects 
from  sound,  is  chiefly  the  result  of  experience ; hence, 
the  ear  is  very  easily  deceived  by  jugglers  and  others, 
who  imitate  sounds  usually  heard  at  a distance. 

Conclusion . 

517.  Through  the  six  organs  of  sense — two,  special 
(the  ear  and  eye) ; two,  additional  (the  nose  and  mouth) ; 


511.  Why  is  the  production  of  sounds  — ? 512.  What  will  be  the  effect 
of—?  513.  Are—?  514.  How  is  the  — ? 515.  What  is  — ? 510.  How  do 

we  form  — ? 517.  What  is  effected  — ? 

6* 


130 


ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS 


an<J  two,  common  (the  skin  and  muscles) — the  mind 
acquires  all  its  knowledge  of  the  properties  of  objects ; 
while,  of  the  condition  of  the  body,  it  is  informed  by 
the  action  of  each  organ  through  the  nerves  that  con- 
nect between  it  and  the  brain. 

518.  There  are,  therefore,  two  grand  divisions 
of  the  Sensatory  Apparatus— into  subjective  and  ob- 
jective ; and  of  the  latter,  there  are  six  subdivisions, 
each,  and  all,  constructed  of  three  kinds  of  organs — 
organs  of  sense  ; nerves  ; Ganglia — one  of  which,  the 
Ganglia,  assists  in  forming  the  brain,  and  is  intimately 
associated  with  the  Emotory,  the  Intellectory,  and  the 
M$otosy  Ganglia,  so  as,  at  times,  to  act  upon  all  of  them. 

Illustrations. — Anything  coming  towards  the  eye 
will  cause  winking  and  the  raising  of  the  hand,  invol- 
untarily; indeed,  it  will  require  quite  an  effort  to  pre- 
vent it.  The  mother  soothes  the  child  with  her  lullaby . 
even  in  mature  years,  nothing  quiets  irritation  so  well 
as  a pleasant  voice,  or  the  singing  of  a melody ; indeed, 
a person’s  own  disposition  is  controlled,  or  excited,  by 
his  own  voice  kept  low,  or  raised  to  an  angry  pitch  : 
the  voice  of  Niagara,  the  deep  roll  of  the  ocean,  the 
starry  heaven,  excite  the  sublimest  emotions  ; the  gesti- 
culations of  anger  will  excite  anger ; those  of  politeness 
will  soften  the  feelings  ; indigestion  will  irritate  ; sound 
health  will  energise,  etc. : a thousand  more  illustrations 
might  be  given  to  show  that,  through  the  Sensatory 
Apparatus,  the  most  important  effects  are  produced. 

519.  The  following  table  will  show  the  relations 
of  all  the  organs  of  the  four  kinds  of  Mentory  Appa- 
ratus, and  that  there  are  two  kinds  of  channels  from 
the  brain : one,  Motory,  outward,  by  which  everything 
is  done  by  the  mind,  whether  for  moving  the  body, 
influencing  people,  or  operating  upon  objects ; and  an- 


518.  — ; what  are  they,  and  with  what  Ganglia  are  the  Sensory  Ganglia 
associated  ? Illustrate  how  the  Sensory  affect  the  Motory  ? the  Intellectory  ? 
the  Emotory?  519.  What  will  — 3 


INTO  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  USES. 


131 


other  channel  made  up  of  six  varieties,  through  which 
the  mind  can  be  acted  upon  by  objects  and  people ; and 
another,  not  here  shown,  by  which  its  own  body  acts 
within  itself. 


MOTORY  ORGANS. 


<3* 

Sen.  Ganglia  ; Nerves  ; Organs  of  Sense 
K ** 

Emo.  Ganglia 

5 a 

Int.  Ganglia 
u 

Mot.  Ganglia  ; Nerves  

s 




r Ear 

. 

Eye 

Nose 

Mouth 

Skin 

L Muscles 


m £ 

g I 

ta  t* 

H 

o ^ 

A ^ 


520.  It  is  therefore  to  be  seen  that,  strictly 
speaking,  the  Emotory  and  Intellectory  Ganglia  may 
be  called  the  home  of  the  mind  ; while  the  Motory  and 
Sensatory  Ganglia  are  parts  of  the  means  it  needs  for 
executing  its  will,  or  for  acquiring  knowledge. 


Sec.  4 . 

CIRCULATORY  APPARATUS  ; ITS  ORGANS. 


521.  The  Circulatory  Apparatus  is  very  simple, 
being  composed  of  only  four  kinds  of  organs — the 
Hearts,  Arteries,  Capillaries,  and  Veins. 

522.  The  Capillaries  are  the  most  important  organs, 
since  they  exist  in  animals  having  no  other  of  the  four. 

523.  The  size  of  the  capillaries  is  very  small: 
they  cannot  be  seen  by  the  naked  eye;  their  sides 
are,  of  course,  very  thin,  but  have  a very  important 


How  many  kinds  of  Ganglia  form  tlie  brain  ? With  which  is  the  mind 
associated  ? 520.  What  is  the  evident  difference  between  the  Ganglia  ? 

521.  — is  composed  of  what  ? 522.  Importance  of  — ? 623.  What  is  — ? 


132 


ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS 


property — that  of  secreting,  and  hence  called  Secretory 
tissue  : by  virtue  of  this  property,  they  change  a part  of 
the  blood  and  pass  it  into  that  which  surrounds  them, 
and  also  take  back  into  themselves  substance  from  that 
which  surrounds  them : for  this  passage  there  are  no 
openings*  but  the  substances  curiously  pass  through  the 
sides  of  the  capillaries  without  leaving  any  trace. 

524.  The  Secretory  action  of  the  capillaries  and 
that  which  is  around  them,  takes  place  with  considerable 
force —sufficient,  where  there  is  no  heart,  to  keep  up  the 
circulation  ; and  where  there  is,  to  do  much  towards  it. 

525.  The  number  of  the  capillaries  is  very  great 
in  all  parts,  but  much  more  numerous  in  some  than  in 
others  : they  are  arranged  in  a net-work,  the  meshes  of 
which  correspond  to  the  structure  where  they  are  found. 

Fig.  82 : 1, 

2,  lungs,  drawn 
aside  from  the 
hearts ; 8,  the 
trachea  ; 4,  5, 
the  bronchii  ; 

6,  ventricle  of 
front,  right,  pul- 
monary, or  res- 
piratory heart; 

7,  its  auricle ; 

8,  left,  back,  or 
systemic  heart; 

9,  10,  vena  ca- 
va, opening  in*- 
to  7 ; 11,  aorta ; 

1 2 , pulmonary 

or  respiratory  artery  ; 13,  14,  its  branches  ; 15,  a cord ; 16,  upper  edge 
of  8 ; 17, 18, 19,  20,  pulmonary  or  respiratory  veins,  opening  into  16  or  8. 

526.  The  veins  are  of  the  next  importance,  exist- 
ing as  strong  tubes,  through  which  the  power  of  the 


How  do  the  capillaries  act  ? 524.  What  is  the  force  of  — ? 525.  What  said 
of — ? Describe  Fig.  82.  How  many  arteries  lead  from  each  heart?  How 
many  veins  lead  into  each  heart  ? 526.  What  are  — ? 


INTO  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  USES. 


133 


Fig.  83. 


Fig.  84. 


Fig.  83  represents  the  great  artery  or  aorta,  commencing  at  the  left 
heart,  and  branching  into  every  part  of  the  body,  opening  into  capillaries 
too  small  to  be  represented.  Fig.  84  represents  the  veins  still  more  nu- 
merous than  the  arteries,  commencing  in  the  capillaries,  and  terminating 
in  the  right  heart.  From  the  right  heart,  arteries  lead  to  the  lungs,  and 
from  them  veins  lead  to  the  left  heart : these  are  not  represented,  but 
would  be  necessary  to  complete  the  organs  of  circulation. 


What  does  Fig.  83  represent  ? Where  are  the  capillaries  formed  What  does 
Fig.  84  represent  ? Are  capillaries  formed  in  the  lung  ? Will  you  name  tho 
parts  in  their  order  through  which  the  blood  passes  in  a complete  circulation  ? 


134 


ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS 


capillaries  pours  the  blood  along  from  one  part  to  an- 
other, in  cases  where  only  veins  and  capillaries  exist. 
The  veins  are  usually  furnished  with  valves  to  prevent 
the  blood  from  flowing  backward. 

527.  In  the  case  of  the  human  Stomach,  Second 
Stomach,  Pancreas,  and  Spleen,  only  capillaries  and 
veins  exist  to  pour  the  blood  from  those  organs  into  the 
capillaries  of  the  liver.  (See  Fig.  — .) 

528.  In  case  of  the  blood  coming  through  veins 
from  ALL  OTHER  parts  to  go  through  the  lungs,  the 
force  of  the  capillaries  is  not  sufficient,  and  therefore — 

529.  A heart  is  necessary,  as  a hollow  muscle,  to 
add  force  to  the  capillary  force  that  is  driving  the  blood 
towards  the  lung.  This  heart  must  be  furnished  with 
two  sets  of  valves — one  set  at  the  opening  into,  and 
another  set  at  the  opening  out  of,  the  heart. 

530.  An  artery  is  needed  where  there  is  a heart, 
because  of  its  force.  The  artery  may  be  thought  of,  as 
a vein  thickened  by  elastic  substance  that  will  yield 
somewhat  to  the  force  of  the  heart,  and  then,  re-acting 
on  the  blood,  will  drive  it  along  when  the  heart  is 
expanding. 

531.  The  artery  called  the  lung,  or  pulmonary, 
leads  the  blood  to  the  beautiful  capillaries  of  the  lung 
and  pours  it  into  them ; the  blood  having  been  acted 
upon  by  the  air,  and  exchanging  substance  with  it,  pours 
along,  through  the  lung,  or  pulmonary  veins,  into  the 
left,  back,  or  systemic  heart  (2,  Fig.  82)  ; this  is  another 
hollow  muscle,  like  the  first,  but  a little  stronger,  needed 
to  impel  the  blood  through  the  great  systemic  artery 
called  the  aorta,  and  its  branches,  called  by  various 
names,  into  the  capillaries  of  all  parts  of  the  body. 

532.  The  hearts  are  situated  by  the  side  of  each 
other,  because  the  best  place  for  each,  and  there  is  thus 


527.  What  arrangement  — ? 528.  What  is  the  case — ? 529.  Why  is  — ? 

How  many  valves  has  each  heart  ? 530.  Why  is  there  a necessity  for  — ? 
531.  What  is  the  use  of  — ? 532.  Why  are  — ? 


INTO  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  USES. 


135 


is  thus  a saving  of  substance  : they  are  also  covered  by 
a common  heart-case,  called  pericardium. 


Fig.  85. 


Fig.  85  heart, 
the  front  view; 

I,  right,  2,  left, 
or  systemic  ven- 
tricle, with  por- 
tion removed;  3, 
R.  auricle ; 4 L. 
auricle;  5,  artery 
opening  from  2 ; 
6,  7,  8,  tricuspid 
valves,  connect- 
ed by  muscles,  9, 
to  inner  surface 
of  heart ; 10,  bi- 
cuspid valves ; 

II,  semilunar 
valves  opening 
into  11,  artery, 
leading  to  lungs 
(pulmonary). 


533.  Both  hearts  contract  together,  throwing  out 
their  contents — one,  into  all  parts  of  the  body ; the 
other,  into  the  lungs  alone  ; then  they  relax,  and  are 
filled,  somewhat  enlarged.  When  they  contract,  they 
press  the  shut  valves  that  open  into  the  heart,  and  open 
those  that  turn  from  the  heart  into  the  arteries  ; and 
when  they  relax,  the  blood  in  the  arteries,  tending  to  fall 


Describe  Fig.  85.  How  many  hearts  are  represented  ? How  many  openings 
in  each  ? 533.  IIow  do  — ? What  effects  of  the  contraction  of  each  heart  ? 
How  do  they  relax,  and  what  is  the  effect  ? 


136 


ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS 


back,  shuts  the  valves  there,  while  those  opening  into 
the  heart  are  opened  by  blood  pressed  against  them. 

534.  Where  the  veins  join  each  heart,  they  are 
somewhat  enlarged,  and  some  muscular  substance  is 
added,  producing  a kind  of  sub-heart  that  assists  in 
filling  the  relaxing  heart.  The  sub-heart  is  frequently 
counted  as  part  of  the  heart,  being  called  its  auricle, 
and  the  other,  arterial  heart,  being  called  the  ventricle. 

535.  The  hearts  contract  about  seventy  times 
per  minute,  upon  an  average  ; more  frequently  when 
the  muscles  are  active,  less  frequently  when  they  are 
quiet ; in  some  persons,  however,  as  few  as  forty  times  ; 
in  others,  as  many  as  one  hundred  in  perfect  health. 

536.  At  each  beat,  pulse,  or  contraction,  the  hearts 
throw  out  from  one  to  three  ounces  of  blood ; say  one, 
and  that  there  are  sixty-four  beats  per  minute  : sixty-four 
ounces,  or  four  pounds  per  minute,  or  240  per  hour,  will 
be  thrown  out,  showing  that  the  blood  circulates  with 
a rapidity  of  which  we  have  little  conception.  Let  each 
one  count  his  pulses,  and  calculate  at  one  and  two 
ounces  how  much  labor  the  heart  performs  in  a day  by 
systematic  action,  and  learn  to  value  systematic  labor. 

537.  As  all  the  blood  in  the  body  averages  about 
twenty  pounds  each  person,  it  will  not  be  difficult  to 
calculate  how  often  the  blood  passes  around  its  entire 
circuit  in  an  hour;  then  we  shall  be  able  to  judge  how 
very  important  it  is  to  assist  in  increasing  this  frequency 
by  all  proper  means. 

Nervous  Organs  of  Circulation . 

538.  It  is  very  evident,  from  the  manner  in 
which  the  circulation  is  affected  by  disease,  by  exer- 
cise, by  breathing,  by  digestion,  by  the  states  of  the  mind, 
that  the  hearts  and  capillaries  are  under  the  regulating 


534.  What  exists  — ? 535.  How  often  do  — ? 536.  How  much  blood  is 

thrown  out  at  — ? each  hour  ? day  ? 537.  Average  weight  of  blood  in  the 

body  ? 538.  What  is  — ? 


INTO  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  USES. 


137 


influence  of  Nervous  Centres,  and  indirectly,  not  di- 
rectly, influenced  by  the  mind  ; but  it  is  not  yet  certain 
which  of  the  Nervous  Centres  nor  which  nerves  super- 
intend the  circulation,  but  it  is  supposed  that  the  sym- 
pathetic nervous  system  has  this  especial  duty. 

Illustration. — If  the  mind  is  excited,  the  heart 
beats  more  quickly  ; why  ? to  supply  the  brain  with 
more  blood.  If  the  emotions  are  active,  does  not  the 
skin  grow  flush,  or  pale  ? Many  illustrations  might  be 
made  to  show  the  effect  of  Nervous  Influence. 

539.  The  Nervous  Centres  controlling  the  circu- 
lation in  the  skin,  and  elsewhere,  are  liable  to  become 
exhausted  by  their  activity  ; hence,  continued  exposure 
of  the  skin  to  the  cold  will  after  a time  overcome  the 
Nervous  Centres,  and  the  circulation  will  not  be  sus- 
tained. If  a person  is  sickly,  or  exhausted  by  fatigue, 
want  of  food,  or  any  cause,  cold  will  the  sooner  over- 
come ; and  then  the  greatest  care  must  be  taken  against 
exposure  to  cold,  a draft,  &c.  Whenever  chilliness  is 
felt,  a warning  is  given  that  should  be  heeded,  and 
exercise,  clothing,  or  a fire,  should  be  resorted  to. 

540.  Nothing  is  more  important  than  to  aid  in 
promoting  and  preserving  a proper  circulation  of  blood, 
especially  in  the  skin.  This  is  to  be  done  by  regulating 
the  action  of  the  mind , particularly  the  emotions  ; by  ex- 
ercise of  the  muscles  / by  frequently  rubbing  the  skin , by 
keeping  it  clean , and  by  properly  clothing  it.  The  three 
words  that  particularly  indicate  what  is  to  be  done 
in  reference  to  circulation,  are  : Rub— Clean — Clothe. 
That  is  to  say : if  the  action  of  the  mind,  the  muscles, 
and  that  of  other  parts  is  properly  attended  to  for  other 
purposes,  that  same  action  will  be  favorable  to  the  cir- 
culation ; but  for  its  especial  benefit,  we  should  rub, 
clean,  and  clothe  the  skin  properly. 


Illustration.— How  can  you  illustrate  mental  effects  upon  the  circulation  ? 
539.  What  is  said  of  — ? When  must  great  care  be  taken  ? 504.  How  aid 
circulation  ? 


138 


ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS 


Sec.  5 . 

RESPIRATORY  APPARATUS;  ITS  ORGANS. 

541.  The  Respiratory  Apparatus  is  needed,  as 
has  been  seen,  to  cause  the  air  and  blood  to  act  freely 
upon  each  other ; for  which  purpose  there  must  be  a 
receptacle  where  they  can  meet,  and  a means  for  re- 
newing them  both  very  frequently.  Those  for  renewing 
the  blood  have  been  shown  : thus, 

542.  The  Respiratory  organs  are  of  two  classes 
— the  Receptive,  or  lungs,  and  the  Motory,  or  chest- 
walls,  diaphragm,  abdominal  muscles,  and  larynx. 

Th  e Lung s. 

543.  The  lungs  are  constructed  of  air-tubes  and 
their  lining,  extended  to  form  air-cells,  of  blood-tubes, 
nerves,  elastic  tissue,  and  a covering. 

544.  The  frame  of  the  air-tubes  is  formed  of 
pieces  of  cartilage  equal  to  four  fifths  of  a ring,  attached 
by  sinewy  tissue  : the  branches  are  much  more  numerous 
than  represented  in  Fig.  86. 

545.  The  lining  of  the  air-tubes  is  the  same  deli- 
cate membrane  as  that  in  the  nose  ; it  becomes  very 
thin  in  the  smaller  tubes,  and,  where  it  forms  the  air- 
cells,  is  not  thicker  than  the  sides  of  a soap-bubble. 

546.  Blood-tubes  and  nerves  enter  by  the  side 
of  the  air-tubes,  branching  with  them,  the  veins  being 
two  to  each  branch  ; the  capillaries  Occupy  the  sides  of 
the  air-cells. 

547.  The  remaining  spaces  are  occupied  with 
sinewy,  elastic  fibres,  that,  stretched  when  the  cells  are 
filled,  are  ready  to  assist  in  expelling  the  air. 


541.  WThy  is  — ? 542.  — what  are  they?  543.  Of  what  parts  are  — •? 

544.  How  is  — ? 545.  What  is  — ? 54S.  How  into  the  lungs  do  the  — ? 

547.  With  what  are  — ? 


INTO  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  USES. 


139 


Fig.  86. 


Fig.  86  represents  the  windpipe  dividing  into  two  branches,  each  of 
which  subdivides  in  its  cor- 


responding lung,  much  more 
minutely  than  represented, 
and  opens  into  clusters  of 
cells,  like  Fig.  87  : 1,  2,  3,  a 
continuous  membrane,  form- 
ing surface  of  lungs. 

Fig.  87^-plan  of  a very 
highly  magnified  cluster  of 
air-cells  (<j),  into  which  a 
allows  the  air  to  enter.  It 
is  like  the  entire  lung  of  a 
frog,  toad,  or  turtle. 


Fig.  88. 


548.  The  lung,  except  at  the  roots,  is  covered 


What  does  Fig.  85  represent  ? Where  does  it  commence  ? Back  of 
what  part  of  the  breast-bone  doe?  it  divide  ? What  is  Fig.  86  ? 548.  With 
what  is  -—  ? 


140 


ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS 


by  a very  delicate,  smooth,  constantly-moistened  or 
serous  membrane,  called  the  pleura  of  the  lungs ; 
hence — 


Fig.  89 
represents 
the  hearts 
(3,4)  be- 
tween the 
lungs,  dis- 
tended as  in 
life  with  the 
front  parts 
cut  away,  to 
show  the  di- 
visions of 
veins,  arte- 
ries, and  (12) 
the  w i n d - 
pipe ; G,  sys- 
temic arte- 
ry; 7,  sys- 
temic vein ; 
1,  2,  right 
and  left  au- 
ricles. 


549.  The  lungs  are  very  simple  organs  to  under- 
stand, both  in  structure  and  in  their  action  : indeed, 
each  cell  is  a lung,  and  what  is  so  called,  is  a collection 
of  thousands  of  such  lungs  ; and  the  smaller  they  are, 
and  the  more  of  them,  the  better  is  a person  furnished. 


Motor y Organs  of  Respiration . 

550.  The  lungs  'may  be  filled  in  two  ways  : by 
blowing  air  into  them,  as  the  toad  does,  or  by  enclosing 


What  is  the  name  of  the  skin,  or  membrane,  forming  the  surface  of  the 
lung  ? Describe  Fig.  87.  549.  In  what  respects  are  — ? 550.  — ; what 

are  they? 


INTO  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  USES. 


141 


them  in  an  air-tight  box  which  can  be  enlarged  and 
diminished : the  latter  is  the  case  of  man. 

551.  The  chest- walls  and  the  diaphragm  form  a 
distensible  air-tight  box,  or  case,  which  is  divided  into 
three  apartments,  by  partitions  extending  from  the 
breast  to  the  back-bone,  and  attached  to  the  diaphragm. 
The  heart  fills  the  centre  one,  leaving  the  right  and  left 


to  be  filled  by  the  lungs. 

Fig.  J90  represents  front  walls  of 
chest  removed,  2 being  upper  ribs 
attached  to  (1)  the  upper  portion 
of  sternum,  of  which  7 is  the  lower 
portion,  to  each  side  of  which  the 
gristly  ends  of  the  lower  ribs  are 
attached  ; 3,  the  spinal  column  ; 
4,  the  centre,  and  5,  6,  the  side 
arches  of  the  diaphragm. 

The  diaphragm  is  a thin,  act- 
ive partition,  chiefly  muscular,  at- 
tached by  its  margin  to  the  lower 
border  of  the  chest,  and  arching 
upward,  as  seen  by  the  figure  of  it 
in  Fig.  90.  The  centre  under  the 
heart  is  tendinous,  and  of  course 
does  not  contract,  nor  tend  to  en- 
large the  apartment  filled  by  the 
heart. 


552.  The  frame  of  the  chest-walls  is  construct- 
ed of  the  spinal  column  (elastic),  of  the  ribs  (part  of 
elastic  cartilage),  jointed  so  as  to  move  up  and  down, 
and  so  curving  round  that  when  they  move  up,  they 
move  outward,  and  increase  the  diameter  across  the 
chest,  and  from  the  spinal  column  to  the  breast-bone. 

553.  The  muscles  of  the  chest- walls  extend  be- 
tween the  ribs,  and  between  those  and  other  parts  : 
thus  they  control  the  motions  of  the  ribs,  while  the 


551.  What  is  formed  by  — ? What  does  Fig.  90  represent  ? 552.  Of  what 
is  — ? 553.  What  is  the  situation  of  — ? What  is  the  form  of  the  diaphragm  ? 
Can  each  arch  be  contracted  alone  ? Yes.  Does  the  centre  contract? 


142 


ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS 


great  diaphragm  enlarges  the  capacity  of  the  chest  by 
the  contraction  of  its  arches.  To  draw  down  the  ribs, 
muscles,  that  pass  from  the  ribs  to  the  pelvis  (see  plate- 
page  2),  are  also  necessary. 

554.  Each  apartment  of  the  chest  is  lined  by  the 
same  kind  of  membrane  as  that  covering  the  lungs, 
which,  in  each  side,  is  called  the  right  and  left  pleura  of 
the  ribs  and  diaphragm. 

Fig.  91  : 1,  section  of  a lung  ; 2,  the  root,  com- 
posed of  branches  and  Blood-tubes  ; 6,  the  external 
covering,  or  pleura,  at  the  root  turning  up,  extending 
out,  passing  down  at  5,  to  turn  up  over  4 (diaphragm), 
and  again  up  to  2,  where  it  becomes  continuous  with  6. 

At  5 it  is  called  pleura  costalis,  because  against  the 
ribs.  The  two  pleurae  are  shown  to  be  merely  one  con- 
tinuous serous  membrane.  The  lung  is  also  shown 
to  be  attached  only  at  its  root,  and  elsewhere  has  a 
free  surface ; not  hanging  from  its  root,  but,  filled  by 
air,  is  sustained  by  the  action  of  the  external  walls  of 
the  chest  and  the  internal  pressure  of  the  air. 


555.  The  lungs  exactly  fill  their  apartments, 
attached  only  at  their  roots,  and  by  their  surfaces,  touch 
the  entire  surface  of  their  apartments,  in  the  gentlest 
manner,  except  when  the  windpipe  is  closed,  and  the 
chest-walls  compress  them.  The  position  occupied  by 
the  lungs  is  well  illustrated  by  the  following  Figs.  92 
and  93,  which  show  a back  and  front  view  of  the  lungs, 
as  they  would  appear  in  the  entire  chest.  In  reality,  when 
the  chest  is  opened,  the  lungs,  instead  of  remaining  ex- 
panded or  distended,  contract,  or,  as  it  is  termed,  col- 
lapse, owing  to  the  elastic  tissue  of  which  they  are  in 
part  constructed.  It  is  this  elastic  tissue  that  chiefly  is 
the  cause  of  the  expulsion  of  the  air  when  the  lungs  are 
in  the  chest. 


How  draw  down  the  ribs  ? 551.  How  is  — ? Describe  Fig.  91.  555.  How 
do  — ? What  aspects  of  the  lungs  are  shown  in  Figs.  92  and  93  ? What  causes 
the  lungs  to  collapse  ? 


INTO  ORGANS  AND  TIIEIR  USES. 


143 


Fig.  92  rep- 
resents the  spinal 
column,  the  back 
parts  of  the  ribs, 
the  oesophagus, 
and  the  aorta  dis- 
sected away,  ex- 
posing (1,  2,  8,  9) 
the  lungs,  as  they 
would  appear  in 


formed  by  4, 7, 11, 
14  : 6,  12,  the  di-. 
aphragm  ; 20,  the 
heart;  19,  divi- 
sion of  windpipe ; 
17,  opening  into 
it ; 18,  tongue  ; 6, 
13,  arches  of  the 
diaphragm. 


Fig.  93  rep- 
resents breast- 
bone and  front 
parts  of  ribs 
dissected  away, 
showing  the 
lungs  (1,  2,  3, 

8,  9,  10),  filled 
with  air,  as  in  |' 
life  : 15,  posi- 
tion of  lowerj 
point  of  heart, 
(7,7),  lining  of 
Chest,  corres- 
ponding to  7,  4! 
7,  Fig.  90  ; 1, 

2,  3,  the  three 
lobes  of  one 
side  ; 8,  9,  the 
two  lobes  of 
the  other. 


Fig.  92. 


What  does  Fig.  92  represent  ? What  does  Fig.  93  represent  ? How  near 
to  the  neck  do  the  lungs  appear  to  be  ? Does  the  windpipe  enter  the  top  or 
sides  of  the  lungs  ? How  are  the  upper  parts  of  the  lungs  sustained  in  place  ? 


144 


ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS 


556.  The  larynx,  an  enlarged  part  of  the  windpipe, 
composed  of  several  cartilages,  with  muscles  to  move 
them,  opens  at  its  upper  and  back  part  into  the  throat, 
or  pharynx  ; above  its  opening  a cartilage  (see  30, 
Fig.  94)  is  attached  to  the  tongue,  and  against  it  the 
larynx  is  raised  when  it  is  desirable  to  close  the  air- 
passages,  as  when  we  swallow,  sneeze,  speak,  &c. 


Fig.  94. 


556.  What  is  said  of  the  construction  of  openings  of  — * ? How  is  the 
opening  into  the  larynx  closed?  When  the  finger  is  on  the  larynx,  docs  it  rise 
if  you  swallow  ? Can  you  see  it  rise  then  ? 


INTO  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  USES.  145 

0 

557.  There  is  more  or  less  muscular  substance 
in  the  walls  of  the  air-tubes  to  assist  in  breathing. 

Remark.— The  elastic  tissue  of  the  lungs  is  of  use 
in  expelling  the  air,  and  therefore  may  be  counted  as 
Motory. 

% 

Mode  of  Br  eaihing . 

558.  The  larynx  being  lowered,  the  windpipe  is 
thereby  opened  : then  if  the  chest  is  enlarged,  the  air 
presses  into  the  lung,  overcomes  its  elasticity,  distend- 
ing it  as  fast  as  the  chest  enlarges ; this  is  inspiration  : 
then  the  chest  is  diminished,  and  the  elasticity  of  the 
lung  throws  the  air  out. 

559.  When  the  air  is  to  be  poured  out  suddenly, 
the  larynx  is  closed,  and  the  expiratory  muscles  con- 
tracted, by  which  pressure  is  made  upon  the  air  in  the 
lungs  : then  the  larynx  is  suddenly  opened,  when  the 
pressure  of  the  expiratory  muscles  will  add  to  the  force 
of  the  elastic  substance  of  the  lungs,  and  the  air  will  be 
expelled  with  corresponding  force. 

560.  The  chest  is  enlarged  by  relaxing  the  op- 
posing muscles,  raising  the  ribs,  straightening  the 
column,  and  contracting  the  diaphragm,  by  which  the 
cartilages  of  the  ribs  and  column  will  be  stretched: 
the  organs  below  the  diaphragm  will  be  pressed  down, 
and,  in  turn,  distend  the  walls  of  the  abdomen. 

561.  The  chest  is  diminished  by  relaxing  the  in- 
spiratory muscles  when  the  stretched  cartilages  act 
to  restore  the  ribs,  the  downward  motion  of  which  is 
further  assisted  by  the  muscles  of  expiration,  especially 
those  of  the  walls  of  the  abdomen,  which  also  press 
its  organs  inward  and  upward  against  the  arches  of  the 
diaphragm,  which,  relaxed,  are  easily  moved  up.  The 


557.  Where  is—?  Use  of  elastic  tissue?  558.  — , what  can  then  take 
place?  559.  — , what  must  be  done?  560.  How  is—?  561.  How  is  -^? 
What  effect  on  walls  of  the  abdomen  ? 


7 


146 


ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS 


continued  action  of  tlie  expiratory  muscles  draws  the 
ribs  and  column  below  their  middle  point,  and  bring 
their  cartilages  into.a  condition  to  have  their  elasticity 
exerted  to  raise  the  ribs  and  draw  in  the  air.  Some 
breathe  almost  entirely  by  raising  the  ribs  above  their 
medium  point,  and  restoring  them  to  it  ; others,  by 
drawing  them  below  that  medium  point,  and  restoring 
them  to  it ; while  others  breathe  still  better  by  moving 
the  ribs  both  above  and  below  the  medium  point. 

Remark. — It  must  be  very  evident  that  perfect 
breathing  cannot  take  place  if  bands,  clothing,  or  any 
thing  confines,  constricts,  or  in  any  way  prevents  the 
full  motion  of  the  trunk-walls,  both  of  the  chest  and 
abdomen  : tight  dress  is  certainly  one  of  the  worst  of 
evils. 

Air. 

562.  As  THE  ENTIRE  USE  OF  THE  RESPIRATORY  ORGANS 
is  to  make  use  of  the  air,  it  becomes  of  the  utmost 
importance  that  we  observe  what  will  affect  its  quality 
and  its  quantity,  since  upon  both  must  its  efficiency 
depend. 

563.  Air  is  composed  of  nearly  four  fifths  nitrogen, 
one  fifth  oxygen,  a minute  quantity  of  carbonic  acid,  a 
large  quantity  of  watery  vapor,  more  or  less  ozone,  &c. 

564.  The  nitrogen  seems  of  no  use  except  to  dilute 
the  other  gases  ; the  oxygen  is  of  vital  importance, 
some  of  it  disappearing  at  each  breath  ; the  carbonic 
acid  is  a decided  poison  when  in  considerable  quantity ; 
some  of  it  is  expelled  from  the  lungs  at  each  breath ; 
and,  in  a short  time,  such  a quantity  will  be  thrown  out, 
that,  to  breathe  the  air  containing  it,  is  very  unhealthy. 
Only  a small  increase  in  the  natural  proportion  of  car- 


How  do  different  persons  breathe  ? Remark.— What  is  the  effect  of  tight 
dress  on  the  chest  ? on  the  abdomen  ? How  through  the  abdomen  will  tight 
dress  affect  breathing?  562.  TVhat  important  as  — ? 5C3.  Of  what  is  — ? 


INTO  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  USES. 


147 


bonic  acid  is  sufficient  to  make  the  air  deadly,  even  if 
the  oxygen  is  not  diminished ; the  watery  vapor  in  the 
air  is  essential  to  prevent  it  from  drying  the  surfaces  it 
acts  upon  : ozone  is  but  little  understood,  but  is  thought 
to  be  some  form  of  oxygen ; its  presence  in  proper 
quantities  is  essential  to  health  ; an  excess  or  absence  of 
it,  especially  the  latter,  causing  diseases  of  the  most 
fatal  sort.  How  to  produce  it  cheaply  is  a question. 

565.  To  secure  pure  air,  our  apartments  must  be 
well  ventilated,  both  night  and  day,  both  in  hot  and 
cold  weather ; also  the  air  all  about  our  buildings,  and 
at  a distance,  must  be  kept  pure ; when  the  air  is  dry, 
as  it  is  likely  to  be  when  warmed,  water  must  be  eva- 
porated into  it ; hence  to  keep  a vessel  of  water  on  a 
stove  in  winter  is  judicious. 

566.  If  the  pure  air  is  in  our  rooms,  it  is  still  neces- 
sary to  give  attention  to  have  that  which  is  in  the  lungs 
well  ventilated ; active  breathing  should  frequently  be 
resorted  to,  for  the  quietness  of  ordinary  breathing  will 
allow  the  air  to  remain  a long  while  in  some  of  the  cells 
undisturbed ; hence,  singing  is  an  excellent  exercise ; so 
is  reading  aloud,  and  other  exercises  that  cause  energetic 
breathing.  Just  before  retiring,  and  upon  rising  when 
the  clothing  is  removed,  some  exercise  that  empties  and 
fills  the  lungs,  viz.,  causes  active  breathing,  is  particularly 
advisable. 

567.  To  RECEIVE  A LARGE  QUANTITY  OF  AIR,  it  is 
necessary  that  the  ribs  be  free  to  rise,  and  the  walls  of 
the  abdomen  free  to  distend : this  can  never  be,  if  any 
'part  of  the  Trunk  is  tightly  clothed  ; now  as 

568.  The  ready  action  of  the  brain,  the  graceful 
action  of  the  muscles,  the  beauty  of  the  skin,  the  viva- 
city of  the  eye,  and  the  health  and  vigor  of  all  parts, 
are  dependent  upon  the  blood,  and  its  good  character 


564.  What  is  the  use  of  nitrogen?  of  oxygen?  of  carbonic  acid?  of  watery 
vapor  ) of  ozone  ? 565.  What  is  necessary  — ? 566.  What  necessary  if  — ? 

567.  What  necessary  in  order  — ? 568,  — depends  on  what  ? 


148 


ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS 


upon  tlie  quality  and  quantity  of  air  breathed : it  must 
be  apparent  that  tight  clothing  cannot  improve  the 
appearance  of  a person . 

A REVIEW  OF  THE  ORGANS  OF  THE  RESPIRATORY 


Apparatus  will  show  that  they  include  the  Nose, 
(sometimes  the  Mouth,)  the  Pharynx,  Larynx,  Trachea, 
Lungs,  Trunk-walls,  and  Diaphragm ; while  the  Hearts 
are  necessary  to  pour  blood  into  the  Lungs  and  receive 
it  from  them ; and  the  various  organs  filling  the  abdo- 
men are  necessary  in  their  places  to  facilitate  breath- 
ing by  their  action  upon  the  abdominal  walls  and  the 
diaphragm. 

Synoptical ly,  the 


Respiratory  Apparatus 


r Nose 
Pharynx 
Larynx 
\ Trachea 


Lungs 

Trunk-Walls 


Diaphragm 


Sec.  6 . 


DIGESTORY  APPARATUS;  ITS  ORGANS. 


569.  The  Digestory  Apparatus  has  two  distinct 
functions — one  of  passing  water  into  the  blood,  and  the 
other  of  preparing  food  and  passing  it  into  the  blood. 

570.  To  pass  water  into  the  blood,  is  a very 
simple  process;  indeed,  taking  it  into  the  mouth  would 
be  sufficient,  and  is  found  to  be  so  when  the  throat  is  too 
sore  to  swallow,  since  it  slowly  passes  through  the  sides 
of  the  blood-tubes  in  the  mouth  into  the  blood ; but  this 
would  usually  be  inconvenient ; hence,  it  is  swallowed 
into  a pouch  (the  Stomach),  through  the  sides  of  which 
it  can  and  does  pass  into  the  blood,  as  it  would  through 
the  mouth.  It  will  pass  through  the  air-surfaces  in  the 
lungs,  or  even  through  the  external  skin. 


568.  — will  show  what  ? What  is  tho  use  of  the  Hearts  in  respiration  ? 
What,  in  breathing,  is  the  use  of  the  abdominal  organs?  569.  — ; what  are 
they  ? 570.  How  are  we  able  — ? 


INTO  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  USES. 


149 


571.  The  rapidity  with  which  water,  or  any  sub- 
stance, will  pass  into  the  blood,  depends  upon  how 
large  a proportion  of  water  there  is  in  the  blood ; hence, 
we  shall  be  safer  if  we  drink  before  going  out  in  the 
morning  in  an  unhealthy  region,  or  into  a sick  room, 
or  wherever  there  is  a liability  to  take  into  the  blood 
any  unhealthy  substances. 

572.  To  PREPARE  FOOD  FOR  PASSING  INTO  THE 
stomach,  in  the  first  place,  it  must  be  ground,  and, 
secondly,  at  the  same  time,  moistened. 

573.  To  grind  the  food,  the  teeth — twenty  in  the 
first  set  and  thirty-two  in  the  second  set — are  inserted 
in  each  jaw ; and,  as  the  grinding  is  very  important  to 
health,  the  teeth  should  be  preserved  by  taking  the 
utmost  care  of  them : they  should  not  be  used  to  bite 
hard  substances — to  crack  nuts,  bend  pins,  cut  off 
thread,  &c. ; nor  should  very  hot  nor  very  cold  substances 
be  allowed  to  act  on  them,  since  they  are  composed  of 
a thin  layer  of  very  hard  enamel  at  the  surface  and  a 
more  bony  material  within  : heat  or  cold  is  apt  to  crack 
the  former.  The  teeth  should  also  be  often  cleansed, 
not  by  powders  or  acids,  but  by  brushing  or  rubbing : 
many  things  sold  at  the  shops  corrode  the  teeth. 

574.  Three  organs  on  each  side  of  the  mouth 
are  adapted  to  form  a fluid  called  saliva : the  largest  of 
these,  at  the  back  of  the  jaw,  called  the  Parotid  gland, 
has  a tube  extending  under  the  skin  of  the  face  to  the 
middle  of  the  cheek,  where  it  opens,  and  can  be  felt  at 
the  inner  surface  ; this  tube,  called  Steno’s  duct,  can  be 
easily  felt ; another  of  the  glands  is  between  the  jaw 
and  tongue ; the  third  is  beneath  the  tongue. 

575.  From  these  glands  a large  quantity  of  fluid 
is  constantly  poured  into  the  mouth,  and  very  much  in- 
creased when  eating.  The  fact  that  this  increase  some- 


571.  — depends  upon  what  ? 572.  How  is  it  necessary  — ? 573.  What 

needed  — ? How  take  care  of  the  teeth  ? 574.  Describe  the  — . Can  you 

feel  Steno’s  duct  ? 575.  What  comes  — ? 


150 


ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS 


times  takes  place  before  food  is  tasted,  and  sometimes 
at  the  mere  thought  of  delicious  food,  proves  that  the 
mind  has  an  influence  upon  the  circulation  of  the  blood, 
and  upon  the  secretion  of  fluids. 

576.  Chewing!-  the  food  thoroughly  effects  two 
objects  : making  the  food  fine,  and  mixing  it  thoroughly 
with  saliva.  It  is  too  often  neglected,  and  the  food 
eaten  with  improper  haste;  losing  us  the  enjoyment  of 
it,  and  preventing  its  perfect  digestion,  and  after  a time 
bringing  on  disease. 

577.  When  chewed,  the  food  is  gathered  into  a ball 
and  pressed  into  the  throat,  being  lubricated  by  the 
tonsils  (23,  Fig.  94)  on  each  side  of  the  back  part  of  the 
tongue  ; the  veil  of  the  palate  (12,  Fig.  94)  is  raised  up, 
closing  the  back  nostrils  ; the  larynx  is  raised  against  30 
(Fig.  94),  and  the  food  is  pressed  on  down  through  the 
oesophagus  into  the  Stomach  (see  Figs.  18,  84,  85.) 

578.  The  (esophagus  opens  into  the  Stomach  a 
little  to  the  left  of  the  centre  of  the  body,  and  about 
one  third  the  distance  from  the  large  to  the  small  end 
of  the  Stomach  (see  Fig.  98). 

579.  The  inner  surface  of  the  stomach  is  very 
delicate  and  velvety,  and,  under  the  microscope,  ex- 
hibits an  immense  number  of  small  holes  that  are  the 
openings  of  short  tubes,  in  the  sides  of  which  at  times 
there  is  formed  a very  important  fluid,  called  gastric 
or  stomach  juice,  because  it  is  found  only  in  the  stomach. 

580.  The  gastric  juice  appears  usually  when  food 
reaches  the  stomach,  but  not  then  if  the  food  is  not 
needed,  and  but  for  a little  while  if  unwholesome  food  is 
taken ; it  continues  to  come  into  the  stomach  for  five 
minutes  to  half  an  hour,  more  or  less  freely,  according 
to  the  need  for  food,  the  quantity  eaten,  and  the  state 
of  the  mind  and  health  of  the  body. 


576.  What  effect  produced  by  — ? 577.  What  is  done  with  the  food  — ? 

Describe  successively  the  course  of  the  food  through  the  mouth  ? 578.  How 
does  — ? 570.  Describe  — . 580.  — when  and  to  what  extent  ? 


INTO  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  USES. 


151 


Fig.  95. 


Fig.  96. 


Fig.  95  (a)  represents  the  diagonal,  ( b ) the  circular, 
and  ( c ) the  longitudinal  fibres,  formed  of  muscle-cells, 
in  the  oesophagus  ; that  at  1 (Fig.  96)  opens  into  the 
stomach  of  which  5 is  the  outer  coat,  dissected  and  turned 
back  from  (7,  8,  9)  the  muscular  fibres,  extending,  as 
shown  by  the  lines,  in  different  directions. 


Fig.  97  represents  (3,  3) 
the  upper  inner  surface 
of  the  distended  stomach, 
a section  of  it  being  made 
through  the  smaller  ex- 
tremity ; 1,  under  surface 
of  liver  ; 2,  gall-bladder  ; 
4,  oesophageal  orifice ; 5, 
pyloric  orifice ; 6,  the  thick 
muscles  around  5 ; 7,  Sec- 
cond  Stomach. 


581.  Mouthful  after  mouthful  the  food  passes 
into  the  stomach,  gradually  distending  it  ; the  juice 
begins  to  flow  ; the  large  extremity  of  the  Stomach  con- 
tracts, slowly  pressing  the  food  into,  and  distending, 


What  does  Fig.  95  represent  ? What  does  Fig.  96  represent  ? What 
does  Fig.  97  represent  ? How  much  of  the  upper  part  of  the  Stomach  is 
represented  ? At  what  portion  of  the  Stomach  does  the  food  enter  ? 


152 


ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS 


the  small  end,  which  again  contracts,  and  presses  the 
food  back  : thus  it  is  mixed  together  and  with  the  juice, 
by  the  action  of  which  after  a time  it  begins  to  be 
changed  into  a grayish  paste,  called  chyme. 

582.  The  length  of  time  required  to  form  chyme 
is  from  one  to  six  hours,  depending  upon  the  quantity 
and  kind  of  food,  its  cooking,  mastication,  and  needed 
bodily  health,  and  the  state  of  the  mind. 

583.  Some  rinds  of  food  are  prepared  in  the 
stomach  to  enter  the  blood,  and  do  pass  into  the  blood- 
tubes,  in  the  sides  of  the  stomach. 

584.  The  balance  of  the  chyme,  as  rapidly  as  it 
is  formed,  passes  little  by  little  into  the  long,  small 
canal,  called  the  Second  Stomach,  or  small  intestinal 
canal. 


Fig.  98. 


Fig.  98 : 1,  liver,  turned  up ; 2,  its  fissure ; 3,  gall-bladder ; 4,  stomach  ; 
5,  oesophagus ; 6,  pylorus  ; 7,  descending  8 transverse  duodenum  ; 9,  pan- 
creas ; 10,  spleen  ; 11  to  24,  arteries. 


>581.  What  takes  place  as  — ? 582.  — depends  upon  what?  583.  — for 
what  purpose  ? 584.  What  becomes  of  — ? Describe  Fig.  98.  In  which  side 
is  the  liver  ? In  which  side  is  the  spleen  ? 


INTO  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  USES. 


153 


585.  The  walls  of  the  Second  Stomach,  like  those 
of  the  stomach,  are  in  three  coats : the  external,  serous, 
that  extends  back  to  the  spinal  column,  forms  a kind 
of  ribbon,  or  ruffle,  called  the  mesentery,  in  which  are 
found  the  vessels  and  nerves  extending  to  and  from  the 
canal ; the  middle  or  muscular  is  in  the  form  of  rings  ; 
the  velvety,  mucous,  internal  coat  is  arranged  in  the 
form  of  folds  to  increase  its  extent  of  surface. 

586.  The  Second  Stomach  varies  in  length  from  five  to 
thirty-four  feet  in  different  persons,  averaging  twenty- 
five  feet.  It  is  coiled  or  curved  like  the  edge  of  a 
ribbon,  and  extends  from  right  to  left,  and  back  agaiu 
to  the  left,  and  again  back,  reaching  the  right  lower 
portion  of  the  abdomen  just  within  the  upper  front 
point  of  the  hip-bone,  where  it  opens  into  the  large 
intestinal  canal,  called  the  colon. 

Fig.  99  : 6,  5,  4, 

Pancreas  entire  ; 7, 
distended  portion  of 
Second  Stomach 
tied  at  each  end.  A 
tube  from  the  pan- 
creas opens  into  7. 

587.  A short  distance  from  the  stomach  the 
chyme  is  mixed  with  a juice,  called  pancreatic,  because 
formed  in  the  pancreas — a small  organ  back  of  the 
lower  part  of  the  stomach. 

588.  Chyme  is  here  also  mixed  with  the  bile  from 
the  liver,  and  the  gall  from  the  gall-bladder,  by  which 
one  portion  of  the  chyme  becomes  fitted  to  and  does 
enter  the  blood-vessels  of  the  Second  Stomach ; while 
another  portion  appears  of  a whitish  or  milk  color, 


585.  What  is  the  structure  of  — ? What  is  the  mesentery?  586.  What 
the  length  and  position  of  Second  Stomach  ? 587.  What  enters  the  Second. 
Stomach  — ? 588.  — with  what  is  ? 

7* 


154 


ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS 


called  chyle,  and  passes  out  of  the  Second  Stomach  into 
the  lacteal  vessels  that  extend  from  it  to  the  veins  in 
the  region  of  the  neck.  (See  Figs.  100,  103,  and  104.  * 

Fig.  100  represents 
a coil  (7)  of  the  Sec- 
ond Stomach  turned 
back,  and  other  parts 
dissected  away,  to 
show  the  lacteals  (6), 
glands  (5),  and  the 
main  duct  (1),  which 
extends  up  and  con- 
nects with  the  veins 
in  the  neck,  as  shown 
in  figure  104.  Te  ob- 
serve how  the  lac- 
teals commence,  see 
17,  16,  Fig.  25. 

589.  The  small  portion  of  chyme  not  thus 
changed,  passes  on  into  the  colon,  which  also  receives 
whatever  is  eliminated  from  the  blood  by  the  Second 
Stomach,  which  is  ordinarily  by  far  the  greater  part 
of  what  passes  into  the  colon,  or  large  intestine — a canal 
much  like  the  Second  Stomach,  only  larger. 

590.  The  colon  commences  just  within  the  upper 
front  point  of  the  hi}>bone ; thence  it  extends  up  on 
the  right  side  underneath  the  thin  edge  of  the  liver, 
where  it  turns  almost  at  a right  angle,  and  extends 
across  the  abdomen  just  below,  and  even  across  and  in 
front  of  the  lower  part  of  the  Stomach ; in  the  left 
side  of  the  abdomen  and  near  the  spleen,  the  colon  turns 
again  at  nearly  a right  angle,  and  extends  down  as 
low  as  the  hip,  the  inner  surface  of  which  it  follows 
downward  and  backward,  appearing  in  the  form  of 
an  S ; below  this  point  it  is  straight,  and  hence  called 


What  is  chyle,  and  where  found?  Describe  Fig.  100.  589.  What  becomes 
of  — ? Where  doe  the  colon  commence,  and  what  is  its  course  ? 590.  What 
is  the  relation  of  the  colon  to  the  other  organs  of  the  abdomen  ? 


INTO  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  USES. 


155 


the  rectum.  Its  names  in  its  course  are  coecum,  where 
it  commences ; then,  ascending,  transverse,  and  descend- 
ing colon,  the  sigmoid  flexure,  rectum. 

591.  It  must  be  evident  that  any  pressure  of  cloth- 
ing on  the  abdomen  must  prevent  free  motion  of  the 
contents  of  its  canals ; especially  will  anything  girding 
the  upper  or  middle  part  of  it  interfere  with  the  free 
passage  of  substances  through  the  colon  : many  diseases 
not  only,  but  deaths,  are  thus  caused. 

592.  Remark . — It  may  be  thought  impossible  to  know  what 
takes  place  in  the  stomach  during  digestion.  In  the  year  1822,  in  the 
State  of  Michigan,  a young  man  named  St.  Martin,  serving  in  our  army, 
was  injured  by  the  accidental  discharge  of  a gun,  the  muzzle  of  which 
was  about  a yard  from  his  body.  The  buckshot  tore  open  his  side,  lacer- 
ating his  lung  and  stomach.  He  fell  into  the  hands  of  Dr.  Beauipont, 
by  whose  aid  he  recovered,  leaving,  however,  an  irregular  opening  into 
his  stomach,  about  an  inch  and  a half  in  diameter,  that  adhered  to  his 
side  in  such  a manner  that  food  could  be  put  into  or  taken  out  of  the 
Stomach,  and  the  organ  examined  under  various  circumstances.  He 
lived  with  Dr.  B.  two  years,  whose  account  of  the  case  is  deeply  inter- 
esting and  profitable.  St.  Martin,  however,  fearing  the  experiments 
would  affect  his  health,  plunged  into  the  depths  of  Canada,  and  was  lost 
sight  of  till  the  railroads  brought  him  to  light  a few  years  since,  when  he 
was  alive  and  well,  and  went  to  Europe  to  exhibit  himself,  the  aperture 
never  having  closed.  Dr.  Beaumont  made  only  a series  of  physical  ob- 
servations and  experiments,  yet  he  conclusively  determined  many  impor- 
tant facts  : that  different  substances,  and  different  methods  of  cooking 
them,  require  different  times  for  digestion ; that  partially  masticated 
food  is  tedious  in  digesting,  and  often  irritates  and  inflames  the  stomach ; 
that,  indeed,  thorough  mastication  is  one  of  the  most  important  steps 
towards  health ; that  food  not  needed  is  not  digested,  and  soon  deranges 
the  stomach ; that  a hearty,  appetite,  combined  with  moderate  disten- 
tion of  the  stomach,  favor  digestion  ; that  moderate  exercise  facilitates 
digestion,  while  active  exercise  of  either  muscles  or  brain  as  surely  re- 
tards it ; that  sleep  immediately  after  eating  is  not  advantageous ; that 
ill-temper  or  other  ill-dispositions  check  the  entire  digestcry  action, 
which,  after  a time,  goes  on  again,  but  not  perfectly ; that  too  much 


What  are  the  names  of  the  colon  % 591.  What  from  the  position  of  the 
colon  — ? 592.  What  — ? Describe  how  St.  Martin  was  injured.  What  facts 
did  Dr.  B.  determine  ? 


156 


ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS 


liquid  with  food  retards  digestion  ; that  the  frequent  use  of  alcoholics, 
wine,  cider,  etc.,  invariably  inflames  the  stomach  ; that  the  stomach  is 
not  sensitive  when  touched,  and  may  even  be  so  diseased  as  to  bleed 
without  exciting  pain  ! Other  experiments  and  observations  upon  man 
and  animals,  since  those  of  Dr.  B.,  have  also  still  further  and  more 
clearly  shown  the  true  nature  and  use  of  the  first  process  of  digestion. 

593.  Food  is  for  different  purposes,  and  hence 
should  he  of  different  kinds : one  purpose  is  producing 
heat ; another,  cooling  the  body  ; one  is  to  nourish  or  re- 
new the  tissues  ; another  is  to  distend  the  stomach,  &c. 

594.  Starch,  fat,  sugar,  and  gum,  are  for  pro- 
ducing heat.  Acids  are  for  cooling  purposes. 

Remark. — Hence,  in  winter  we  should  eat  more 
of  heat-producing  food,  especially  if  exposed  to  the  cold, 
and  should  have  a more  healthy  appetite  for  it,  which  is 
the  case ; while  in  summer,  or  at  any  time  when  hot, 
we  should  prefer  lemonade,  acid  fruits,  &c. 

595.  To  nourish  the  muscles  and  brain  different 
varieties  of  food  are  required,  while  peculiar  varieties 
are  doubtless  required  by  other  parts.  Precisely  what 
varieties  of  food  will  include  all  those  best  adapted  to 
the  wants  of  the  brain,  cannot  be  told  at  present,  but 
sometime  will  be  known.  The  idea  is  a very  important 
one , and  its  practical  application  should  be  worked  out 
as  soon  as  possible  ; but  Eggs,  Brains  themselves,  certain 
kinds  of  fish,  the  brown  part  of  grain-food,  oats,  and 
beans  and  peas,  are  especially  adapted  to  form  brain 
and  nervous  tissue. 

596.  Waste  food  includes  that  portion  of  any  kind 
which  is  more  than  is  needed,  but  it  usually  means  that 
which  cannot  bo  of  use,  except  to  increase  the  bulk  of 
the  food,  enabling  the  organs  to  act  upon  it  better. 
Fruits  and  vegetables,  to  a reasonable  extent,  are  almost 
always  wholesome  and  advisable. 


593.  — what  are  they  ? 594.  — are  for  what  ? What  articles  of  food  con- 
tain them  largely?  When  do  we  cat  griddle-cakes?  595.  What  required — ? 
596.  What  is  — ? 


INTO  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  USES. 


157 


597.  All  kinds  of  food  should  be  properly  cooked ; 
some  need  much  cooking — as  beans  ; others  but  little — 
as  eggs.  All  kinds  of  grains  that  include  starch  require 
much  cooking,  while  tender  meats  require  little  ; tough 
meats  much ; sugars  none,  and  gums  none.  A proper 
blending  of  articles  of  food,  so  that  it  is  savory,  is  valu- 
able ; a change  of  diet  tends  to  furnish  the  body  with 
the  varied  nutrition  it  requires.  Some  vegetables  should 
be  cooked ; others  may  be  eaten  raw. 

598.  All  food  should  be  well  masticated  ; and 
Dr.  Beaumont  testifies  that,  in  the  case  of  St.  Martin, 
amiability  advanced  digestion,  while  ill-temper  retarded 
or  stopped  it;  also,  if  there  was  an  appetite,  that  the 
thought  of  food  would  cause  the  gastric  juice  to  start,  as 
showing  the  mind’s  influence : so  the  mouth  waters. 

599.  Food  should  not  be  eaten  when  there  is  no 
appetite,  nor  should  things  be  eaten  to  cause  an  appetite ; 
especially  should  we  be  thoughtful  not  to  eat  more  than 
appetite  craves,  and,  when  unwell,  be  ever  abstemious. 

600.  To  produce  a healthy  appetite,  expose  the 
body  to  the  fresh  air,  exercise  the  muscles  well,  and 
render  the  brain  active,  unless  it  has  been  overworked : 
sometimes  persons  lose  their  appetite  from  over-mus- 
cular and  brainial  exercise,  there  not  being  strength 
enough  left  to  digest  food ; then  rest  is  the  only  remedy. 

601.  A Review  of  the  organs  of  the  Digestory  Appa- 
ratus will  show  that  they  include  the  Mouth,  (Teeth, 
Salivary  glands),  Pharynx,  (Esophagus,  Stomach  (Gastric 
glands),  Second  Stomach  (Brunner’s,  Leiberkuhn’s, 
Peyer’s  glands),  Liver,  Pancreas,  Lacteals,  Colon, 
Blood-vessels,  Nerves,  and  Walls  of  the  Abdomen; 
while  the  diaphragm  and  the  walls  of  the  chest  assist 
digestion,  their  action  promoting  the  movements  of  the 
organs  of  digestion. 


597.  How  cook  — ? Should  every  thing  be  cooked  ? 598.  — why  ? 

599.  — when?  600.  What  should  we  do  — ? 601.  What  organs  arc  digestory  ? 
What  effect  has  the  diaphragm  ? Singing,  &c.  ? 


158 


ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS 


Synoptically,  the 


Digestory  Apparatus 


r Mouth 
(Esophagus 
Pharynx 
Stomach 
Second  Stomach 
Liver 
Pancreas 
Lacteals 
Colon 

Blood-tubes 

Nerves 

Walls  of  the  Abdomen 


Sec.  7. 


ELIMINATORY  APPARATUS;  ITS  ORGANS. 

602.  The  Eliminatory  Apparatus  is  not  one 
simple  unit,  but  is  constructed  of  several  apparatuses : 
the  Lungs  eliminate  from  the  blood,  so  does  the  Liver,  so 
does  the  Second  Stomach,  and  so  largely  that  they  may 
be  counted  as  parts  of  this  apparatus  ; the  salivary  glands, 
the  tear-glands,  the  pancreas,  &c.,  also,  eliminate  from 
the  blood  ; but  to  eliminate  is  not  the  only  nor  the 
chief  duty  of  those  parts. 

603.  Two  kinds  of  organs  are  needed  for  special 
elimination:  1st,  of  water;  2d,  of  other  matters. 

604.  Water  must  be  eliminated  under  two  very 
different  circumstances  : 1st,  that  by  evaporating  it  may 
cool  the  body,  in  connection  with  this  elimination,  thirst 
must  be  excited ; otherwise,  the  source  of  the  elimina- 
tion would  fail ; and  2d,  it  must  be  removed  without 
exciting  thirst,  and  without  cooling  the  body,  as  the 
object  of  removing  it  in  this  case  is  to  increase  the  heat 
of  the  body ; so  that  water  is  to  be  eliminated,  either 
when  the  body  is  too  warm,  or  too  cool,  but  by  two 
different  methods. 


602.  — what  ? What  three  kinds  of  organs  eliminate  ? 003.  What  other 
need  for  — ? 604.  Ilow  must  — , 1st?  How  must  water  he  eliminated,  2d  i 

For  what  two  different  purposes  eliminate  water? 


INTO  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  USES. 


159 


Fig.  101  represents  a very  highly 
magnified  view  of  a perpendicular  sec- 
tion of  a small  portion  of  the  skin. 

It  is  divided  into  three  parts  : 1,  the 
external  layer  or  cuticle,  composed  of 
cells  starting  up  from  the  basement 
membrane  below,  and  gradually  be- 
coming dry  and  flattened  scales  as, 
layer  after  layer,  they  approach  the 
surface,  from  which  they  are  worn,  or 
drop  off.  Two  curved  passages — the 
outlets  of  the  perspiration— are  notice- 
able, communicating  below  with  four 
tubes  in  one  case,  and  two  in  the  other, 
that  are  coiled  at  their  lower  extremities, 
and  form  the  perspiratory  glands  (y); 

2 is  the  papillary  portion,  in  which  the 
nerves  of  touch  commence,  surrounded 
by  a network  of  lymphatics  and  capil- 
laries, supplied  with  blood  through  (a) 
an  arterial  branch , 3 is  the  true  skin, 
composed  of  sinewy  fibres  woven  among 
the  tubes,  nerves,  and  perspiratory 
glands.  In  the  lower  part  the  meshes 
are  larger,  and  filled  sometimes  with 
clusters  of  fat-cells,  as  at  e . There  are 
about  thirty  miles  of  tubing  in  the  skin. 

605.  The  skin  offers  an  excellent  opportunity  for 
removing  water  to  cool  the  body  (see  Fig.  101),  and  an 
internal  organ  must  be  constructed  for  the  other  pur- 
pose. It  is  found  in  the  kidneys,  situated  in  the  loins, 
upon  each  side  of  the  spinal  column  ; they  are  con- 
structed of  an  immense  number  of  tubes,  and  receive 
very  large  branches  of  arteries,  so  that  they  can,  when 
it  is  necessary,  work  the  water  out  of  the  blood  with 
great  rapidity,  and  without  loss  of  heat. 

606.  The  eliminators  of  the  water  might  also, 
if  needed,  be  called  on  to  assist  in  eliminating  other 
substances  from  the  blood,  since  the  water  could  dis- 
solve and  wash  them  out  from  the  tubes.  This  is  the 


What  does  Fig.  101  represent  ? How  numerous,  according  to  this  repre- 
sentation, must  bo  tho  perspiratory  tubes  of  the  skin  ? 605.  What  does  — ? 
606.  — to  do  what  ? 


160 


ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS 


case : certain  substances  thrown  into  the  blood  by  the 
brain  are  removed  by  the  kidneys,  while  the  perspira- 
tory tubes  of  the  skin  are  constantly  exuding  a viscid 
substance  that  requires  frequent  bathing  to  effectually 
clear  it  away  from  the  surface  of  the  skin  ; — hence, 

607.  It  is  exceedingly  important  that  we  frequently 
rub  the  skin  to  promote  an  active  circulation  of  blood 
through  it ; that  we  clothe  it  properly,  as  well  as  bathe 
it  often.  The  removal  of  the  viscid,  very  impure 
substance  is  facilitated  by  the  use  of  soap. 

608.  The  hair  is  also  an  elimination  fed  from  the 
blood  ; and  to  promote  the  growth  of  it,  the  skin  should 
be  often  rubbed.  Glands,  or  pouches,  in  the  skin,  also 
throw  out  oil  to  protect  the  skin  and  hair  : this  will 
also  be  found  in  abundance,  if  the  skin  is  well  rubbed ; 
by  rubbing,  the  oil  in  the  skin  will  also  be  prevented 
from  drying  in  the  pouches,  and  collecting  the  dust  that 
produces  the  appearance  of  black  specks,  often  dis- 
figuring the  complexion  very  much. 

609.  A REVIEW  OF  THE  ORGANS  OF  THE  ELIMINATORY 
apparatus  shows  that  they  include  two  classes  : 1st,  the 
common,  viz.,  the  Lungs,  Liver,  Second  Stomach,  &c., 
that  eliminate  in  common  with  the  performance  of  other 
offices  ; and  2d,  the  special,  viz.,  the  Perspiratory  glands 
of  the  Skin  and  the  Kidneys,  the  office  of  which  is  solely 
to  eliminate. 

Synoptieally,  the 


Eliminatory  Apparatus  = 


Common  = - 


Lungs 

Liver 

Second  Stomach 

Blood-tubes 

Nerves 


_ Special  = 


' Perspiratory  glands  of  the 
Skin 
Kidneys 
Blood-tubes 
Nerves 


What  exudes  from  the  skin  ? 607.  What  in  case  of  the  skin  is  — ? 

608.  What  is  said  of  — ? 609.  What  is  shown  by  — ? Make  a table  of  Elimi- 

natory Apparatus  ? 


INTO  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  USES. 


161 


Sec.  8 . 

MODIFICATORY  APPARATUS  ; ITS  ORGANS. 

610.  Though  all  the  organs  of  the  body  are 
constantly  modifying  the  blood,  it  yet  needs  a differ- 
ent or  additional  kind  of  modification  : for  this  purpose 
organs  have  been  provided,  having  no  other  office. 

Fig.  102  : 1,  2,  3,  a number  of  Blood- 
cells,  very  much  magnified.  Their  shape 
in  various  positions  is  very  well  shown. 

When  out  of  the  blood,  they  are  prone 
to  adhere,  as  at  3 ; 4,  5,  6,  7 are  the  same, 
still  more  highly  magnified  to  show  in  sec- 
tion the  convex  (5)  and  the  concave  (7) 
surface  that  the  same  cell  will  exhibit  at 
different  times.  Their  semi-transparent 
character  is  shown  at  6. 

611.  1st.  In  the  blood  itself,  in  part  composing 
it,  millions  of  cells  float — nearly  3,000  in  a single  drop, 
and  about  five  pounds  in  the  blood : these  cells  take  sub- 
stance from  other  parts  of  the  blood,  and  give  it  back, 
changed  in  a way  not  understood.  It  is  these  cells  that 
give  color  to  the  blood  ; when  they  enter  the  lungs, 
they  are  dark-red ; acted  on  by  the  air,  their  form  is 
changed,  and  they  become  bright-red ; as  they  circulate, 
thus  improved,  they  help  give  life  to  all  parts,  and 
beauty  to  the  skin : thus  pure  air  will  beautify ; and 
tight  clothing , or  impure  air,  will  dull  the  complexion. 

612.  2d.  The  lymphatics  are  minute  tubes  com- 
mencing in  all  parts,  except  the  brain  and  nerves.  They 
gather  from  the  former  a watery  fluid  called  lymph; 
uniting,  they  form  larger,  yet  small,  tubes  that  open  into 


610.  — what  also  needed  ? Describe  Fig.  102.  611.  What  exists  — ? 

IIow  many  cells  ? Wbat  would  bo  the  effect  if  they  should  be  located  in 
one  place  ? Where  could  they  be  ? 612.  What  are  — ? 


Fig.  102. 


162 


ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS 


PLATE  V. 

Pig.  103.  Fia.  104. 


Fig.  1 03  : Lymphatics  of  trunk  opening  into  the  thoracic  duct.  Fig.  104 : 
Right  side,  superficial ; left  side,  deep  ; lymphatics,  connecting  with 
the  thoracic  duct. 


INTO  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  USES. 


163 


small  bodies,  called  lymphatic  glands,  about  the  size  and 
form  of  a grain  of  wheat,  of  which  great  numbers  exist 
in  some  parts : when  these  swell,  they  are  easily  felt  as 
small,  firm  lumps,  called  kernels.  The  use  of  the  lymph, 
or  the  mode  in  which  the  glands  modify  it,  is  not  under- 
stood ; the  lymph  contains  white  cells,  and  it  is  supposed 
that  these  are  formed  in  the  glands,  and  have  something 
to  do  with  forming  the  red  cells  in  the  blood ; the  lym- 
phatics open  into  the  veins,  and  the  lacteals  open  into 
the  main,  lymphatic  trunk,  called  the  thoracic  duct,  that 
extends  up  and  opens  into  the  vein  of  the  neck,  as  is 
shown  by  Figs.  103  and  104.  In  the  groin  and  neck 
are  shown  a few  of  many  glands.  Fig.  — represents 
the  lymphatics  near  the  surface,  as  they  commence  in 
the  thumb,  though  not  easily  seen  by  the  naked  eye. 


Fig.  105  represents  concave  surface  of  Spleen,  with  which  the  stomach 
is  in  contact ; 6,  branches  of  arteries ; 7,  vein. 

Fig.  106  : 6 represents  the  thyroid  gland,  like  a saddle  across  the  wind- 
pipe  (7),  just  below  the  larynx.  It  is  named  from  the  thyroid  cartilage  (3). 


Describe  Figs.  103  and  104.  What  are  the  lymphatic  glands  ? What  is  the 
use  to  the  lymph  ? Describe  Fig.  105.  Describe  Fig.  106.  Can  the  thyroid 
gland  be  felt  ? 


164 


ANALYSIS  OF  APPARATUS. 


613.  3d.  The  spleen  is  a spongy-feeling  organ,  full 
of  cells,  apparently  like  the  blood-cells.  They  are  prob- 
ably enmassed  here  because  the  blood  cannot  properly 
float  them  all.  It  is  situated  in  contact  with  the  left  of 
the  stomach.  As  it  has  no  exit-tube  but  a vein,  it  must 
in  some  way  modify  the  blood  that  passes  through  it, 
since  the  blood  that  leaves  through  the  vein  differs  from 
that  which  enters  the  spleen  through  the  artery.  There- 
fore, the  blood  must  be  changed  in  the  spleen. 

614.  4th.  The  thyroid  gland  must  have  the  office  of 
modifying  the  blood,  as  it  has  no  outlet  but  veins ; but 
what  it  does,  we  do  not  know.  It  enlarges  very  much 
in  some  cases,  producing  what  is  called  swelled  neck, 
bronchocele,  or  goitre : this  is  often  produced  or  aggra- 
vated by  the  use  of  “ hard  water,”  especially  magnesian 
water,  and  can  be  lessened  by  the  use  of  soft  water. 

615.  A review  of  the  organs  of  the  Modificatory 
Apparatus  will  show  that  they  include  the  Blood-cells, 
Lymphatics,  Spleen,  Thyroid-gland,  and  some  minor 
parts. 

Synoptically,  the 


Modificatory  Apparatus 


r Blood-cells 
Lymphatics 
Spleen 

Thyroid-gland,  &c. 

Blood-vessels 

Nerves 


616.  Thus  have  we  accounted  for  the  existence 
and  the  necessity  of  all  the  organs  of  the  body.  They, 
each  and  all,  have  a use  which  it  is  the  part  of  wise 
men  to  learn  how  to  promote  and  facilitate.  We  have 
also  shown  to  what  Apparatus  each  organ  belongs, 
what  organs  work  together,  and  how  they  work  toward 
gaining  the  great  object  for  which  they  were  made. 
(See  table  of  all  the  organs  in  the  Appendix.) 


C13.  Describe  — ? 614.  What  is  the  office  of — ? 615.  What  does  a review 
of  Modifying  Apparatus  show  ? 616.  We  have  — for  what  ? Will  you  go  back 
and  recount  all  the  organs  ? Read  the  organs  mentioned  in  table. 


ANALYSIS  OF  ORGANS  INTO  TISSUES. 


165 


CHAPTER  VII. 

ANALYSIS  OF  ORGANS  INTO  TISSUES. 

61^.  It  has  been  seen  that  organs  are  wrought 
from  several  different  kinds  of  substances  : these  are 
called  tissues 

618.  It  is  also  noticeable  that  but  a very  few 
different  kinds  of  tissues  will  be  necessary  in  the  con- 
struction of  all  the  different  kinds  of  organs,  because 
very  nearly  the  same  tissues  are  needed  to  construct 
the  different  organs. 

619.  In  fact  there  will  be  needed  only  six  kinds 
of  tissues,  since  of  six  different  kinds ,#11  the  organs  can 
be  perfectly  constructed,  for  in  no  organ  will  there  be 
need  for  any  property  not  given  either  by  Bony  or 
Cartilaginous  or  Sinewy,  or  Muscular  or  Nervous  or 
Secretory  tissue. 

620.  Is  hardness  wanted,  as  in  the  skeleton,  it  is 
given  by  Bone  ; is  firmness  and  elasticity  needed,  as  in 
the  ear,  windpipe,  &c.,  it  is  conferred  by  Cartilage  ; is 
strength  and  flexibility  required,  as  in  binding  movable 
parts  together,  in  constructing  the  skin,  &c.,  they  are 
found  in  Sinew ; is  contraction  required,  it  is  bestowed 
by  Muscular  tissue  ; is  any  part  to  be  excited  to  action, 
sensation  caused,  or  the  activity  of  mind  provided  for, 
Nervous  tissue  will  suffice ; is  any  substance  to  be  se- 
creted, secretion  can  only  be  supplied  by  Secretory 


What  is  the  topic  of  Chapter  VII.  ? 617.  What  — ? 618.  What  is  — ? 

619.  What — ? 620.  What  tissues  confer  the  needed  properties?  What  is 

their  number  ? Can  you  find  any  others  in  any  piece  of  meat  ? 


166 


ANALYSIS  OF  ORGANS  INTO  TISSUES. 


tissue.  Can  any  other  property  be  of  use  in  an  organ  ? 
No.  Then  only  six  tissues  are  needed. 

621.  It  is  noticeable  also  that  three  are  passive 
and  three  are  active,  as  follows 


622.  The  tissues  are  subdivisible  into  varieties ; 
even  the  Bony  differs  in  different  parts  and  at  different 
periods  of  life,  so  does  the  Gristly ; the  Sinewy  is  white 
inelastic,  or  yellow  elastic ; while  it  is  woven  so  as  to 
form  ligament,  tendon,  membrane,  sheaths,  and  also 
in  such  various  ways  as  to  form  the  framework  of  all 
the  soft  organs.  The  Nervous  tissue  is  either  white  or 
fibrous,  or  gray  cellular ; the  Muscular  has  also  two 
forms ; the  Secretory  is  in  the  form  of  a membrane,  a 
tube,  or  a cell ; in  the  latter  case  the  form  varies  very 
much  in  different  cases,  and  the  substances  secreted  are 
as  various  as  the  varieties  of  the  tissue. 

623.  The  secretory  is  the  only  tissue  that  has  not 
been  sufficiently  described.  It  can  be  distinctly  seen 
only  through  the  microscope.  It  is  a peculiar  tissue,  and 
has  the  property  of  changing  the  blood,  or  whatever 
it  operates  upon,  in  such  a manner  as  not  merely  to 
separate  a substance  from  it,  but  often  so  as  to  produce 
a new  substance.  It  is  found  at  all  surfaces : it  forms 
the  surface  of  the  skin  covering  the  body,  the  lining 
of  the  mouth  and  digestory  canal,  the  nose  and  air- 
passages  in  the  lungs,  the  surfaces  of  the  brain,  blood- 
tubes,  lungs,  stomach,  joints,  &c. ; it  is  massed  in  large 
quantities  in  the  liver,  and  in  smaller  quantities  in  the 
other  glands.  Wherever  there  is  any  fluid  to  be  formed 
or  separated  from  the  blood,  the  secretory  tissue  is  to 
be  found,  and  it  also  floats  in  the  blood. 


621.  What  is  also  — ? Repeat  the  table  of  tissues.  622.  How  are  — ? How 
many  varieties  are  there  of  each  kind  of  tissue  ? 623.  What  is  said  of  the  — ? 
Where  is  the  secretory  tissue  found  ? 


ANALYSIS  OF  ORGANS  INTO  TISSUES. 


167 


624.  That  good  organs  may  be  wrought,  there 
must  be  good  tissues  to  construct  them  from,  since  the 
organs  can  only  exhibit  the  properties  of  the  tissues : 
what  their  tissues  have,  they  can  have  ; what  their 
tissues  do  not  have,  they  cannot  have. 

625.  The  Stoiuach  is  strong  and  flexible  because 
of  its  Sinewy  tissue  ; it  can  contract  by  virtue  of  its 
Muscular  tissue,  and  secretes  because  constructed  in 
part  of  Secretory  tissue  ; it  secretes  three  varieties  of 
secretion,  because  it  has  three  varieties  of  Secretory 
tissue — the  serous,  the  mucous,  and  the  gastric. 

626.  The  action  of  tissues  will  depend  upon  their 
quality,  quantity,  and  their  proportions  ; for  though  two 
portions  of  tissue  may  be  called  by  the  same  name,  they 
may  differ  very  much  in  quality,  one  being  perfect  and 
the  other  many  degrees  from  it.  Again,  the  quantity 
of  any  tissue  in  any  organ  may  differ,  affecting  the  size  of 
the  organ,  while  the  proportions  of  one  tissue  to  another 
in  the  same  organ,  or  in  another  organ,  will  affect  the 
character  of  an  organ.  For  example  : there  may  be 
more  Muscular  tissue  in  one  muscle  than  in  another ; 
and  if  everything  else  is  similar,  the  larger  muscle  will 
exhibit  more  strength ; but  if  there  is  more  Nervous 
tissue  in  or  connected  with  one  muscle,  then  the  char- 
acter of  that  muscle  will  be  very  much  modified,  act- 
ing quicker  or  more  powerfully,  and  being  sooner 
exhausted. 

627.  The  quantity  of  tissue  in  an  organ  will  de- 
pend partly  on  inheritance,  and  partly  on  training — for 
the  size  of  an  organ,  viz.,  the  quantity  of  tissue,  and  also 
the  proportionate  quantity,  is  partly  limited  by  inherit- 
ance— but  up  to  that  point  can  be  controlled  by  training. 

628.  Since  the  action  of  an  organ  causes,  or  is  de- 
pendent UPON,  A CORRESPONDING  CHARACTER  IN  ITS  TISSUE, 


624.  What  is  necessary  in  order  — ? 625.  Why  is  — ? 626.  — upon  what  ? 
How  may  organs  differ  in  size  ? 627.  — upon  what  ? How  may  organs  he 

enlarged  ? 628.  What  inference  follows  — ? 


168 


ANALYSIS  OF  ORGANS  INTO  TISSUES. 


the  continued  action  of  an  organ  must  depend  upon  its 
tissue  being  constantly  renewed,  and  this,  again,  must 
depend  upon  a large  supply  of  good  blood — for  which, 
again,  good  material  must  be  supplied  to  the  blood  in 
the  air,  water,  and  food — and  the  active  circulation 
of  the  blood  promoted  by  proper  exercise,  rubbing, 
clothing,  &c. 

629.  If  BY  INHERITANCE,  THEREFORE,  THERE  IS  AN  UN- 
DESIRABLE proportion  in  the  tissues,  as  is  frequently 
the  case,  a proper  training  can,  to  a degree,  correct  the 
evil.  For  example  : if  a child  shows  an  overproportion 
of  the  Nervous  tissue,  the  Muscular  tissue  should  be 
especially  exercised  ; if  there  is  too  large  a proportion 
of  Muscular  tissue,  the  child  should  have  its  Nervous 
tissue  exercised  more. 

630.  The  quantity  and  proportions  of  the  tissue 
are  of  little  consequence  without  they  are  of  a proper 
quality ; the  most  important  point  of  all  is  to  know  of 
what  and  how  they  are  constituted  and  perfected,  which 
interesting  point  we  will  attend  to  in  the  next  chapter. 

631.  System,  used  properly,  means  all  the  Tissue 
of  either  kind  named,  arranged  as  it  is  in  the  body. 

632.  There  are  therefore  six  systems  : Bony  or 
Osseous,  Gristly  or  Cartilaginous,  Sinewy  or  Fibrous, 
Secretory,  Muscular,  Nervous. 

633.  Parts  having  a structure  similar  to  each 
other,  are  with  some  latitude  called  system,  as  venous 
system,  arterial  system  ; but  because  parts  act  together 
is  no  reason  for  calling  them  a system ; there  is  not  a 
circulatory  nor  digestory  system  : apparatus  is  the  word 
in  this  case. 

634.  The  Liquids  of  the  Body  are  15  : Blood, 
Lymph,  Flesh-juice  ; Serum,  Mucus,  Oil  (called  general ; 
the  latter  three  called  also  surface-liquids,  and  are  chiefly 


629.  What  is  to  be  done  — ? 630.  What  said  of  — ? 631.  — what  ? 
632.  — what  are  they  ? 633.  — are  called  what  ? 634.  — are  how  many  ? 
Name  the  liquids. 


ANALYSIS  OF  ORGANS  INTO  TISSUES. 


169 


lubricating)  ; Tear-fluid  ; Salivas  (two),  Gastric-juice, 
Bile,  Gall,  and  Pancreatic,  Brunner’s  and  Leiberkuhn’s 
juices.  The  last  seven  are  digestory. 

635.  All  the  LIquids  are  secreted ; they  are  com- 
posed mostly  of  water,  with  which  a little  solid  matter, 
of  the  kinds  peculiar  to  each  secretion,  is  combined. 
The  tear-fluid  is  nearly  all  water,  with  a little  salt  to 
make  it  more  transparent.  The  liquid  of  the  joints, 
called  synovia  or  synovial  fluid,  is  mostly  water  with  a 
little  albumen  (like  white  of  egg),  making  a very  glairy 
liquid.  Serum  is  nearly  the  same  with  less  albumen. 

636.  The  Gases  are  Oxygen  and  Carbonic  acid. 

637.  The  Body  may  therefore  be  said  to  be  com- 
posed of,  and  analyzable  into,  Tissues,  Liquids  and 
Gases  : the  three  forms  of  matter — solid,  liquid,  and 
gases,  and  corresponding  to  air,  water,  food. 

Remark  1. — Fat  is  not  an  organ,  nor  a part  of  an  organ,  but  merely 
a deposit,  as  usually  understood.  It  is  constructed  of  Sinewy  tissue 
for  its  framework  and  of  Secretory  tissue  in  the  form  of  minute  cells, 
which  secrete  themselves  full  of  oil.  The  oil  is  a store  of  fuel  to  be 
burned  when  the  occasion  requires ; hence,  a person  should  fatten  in 
fall,  and  lose  fat  in  spring.  Fat  also  preserves  heat,  or  serves  as  a 
clothing  ; hence,  whales  have  a very  thick  layer  of  it  under  their  skins ; 
so  do  swine  ; hence,  a little  child  should  be  fat.  Persons  who  are  lean 
and  healthy  produce  much  heat,  and  therefore  need  not  the  fat.  Fat 
in  the  bones,  in  part,  prevents  the  jars  produced  in  walking  from 
reaching  the  brain.  Animals  that  are  fat  are  most  cheaply  kept. 

Remark  2. — The  Sinewy  tissue  binds  all  the  organs  together  by  a 
kind  of  network  called  Areolar  tissue,  the  areolae  or  spaces  of  which 
connect  so  that  fluids  can  pass  from  one  to  another,  and  the  liquid  that 
moistens  the  areolae  sometimes  collects  in  the  feet,  causing  them  to 
swell.  Sometimes  butchers  blow  air  into  the  spaces  to  fill  out  the 
meat  and  make  it  look  fatter.  The  character  of  this  Areolar  tissue  may 
be  understood  by  the  fact,  that  if  one  end  of  a tube  should  be  intro- 
duced under  the  skin,  and  air  forced  through  it,  the  skin  of  the  whole 
body  could  be  gradually  distended. 


635.  — are  produced  in  what  manner  ? 636.  What  ai  e — ? 637.  — what  ? 

Remark  1.— What  is  fat?  Remark  2. —What  is  fat  for?  Where  could  fat 
exist  ? What  is  areolar  tissue  ? 

8 


170 


ANALYSIS  OF  TISSUES,  LIQUIDS, 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

ANALYSIS  OF  TISSUES,,  LIQUIDS,  AND  GASES  INTO 
ELEMENTS. 

(See  page  176.) 

638.  The  Tissues  are  composed  of  13  different  sub- 
stances, called  elements  because  each  does  not  appear  to 
be  composed  of  more  than  one  substance,  that  also 
appears  to  be  always  the  same. 

Oxygen,  Nitrogen,  Calcium,  Potassium, 

Hydrogen,  Phosphorus,  Magnesium,  Sodium,  Iron. 

Carbon,  Sulphur,  Silicon,  Chlorine, 

639.  These  Elements  may  be  united  together  in 
such  proportions  as  to  form  the  Tissues,  yet  not  in  such 
proportions  as  to  form  them  most  perfectly,  and  this 
may  be  either  because  the  elements  are  not  so  abundant 
as  is  required,  or  because  the  influences  that  combine 
them  are  not  as  powerful  as  is  necessary. 

640.  Where  do  these  elements  come  from  ? The 
earth,  the  water,  and  the  air. 

641.  What  compounds  the  elements  so  that  they 
become  Tissues  ? The  Heat  and  Light  and  chemical  in- 
fluence of  the  Sun,  and  doubtless  the  electrical  influences 
of  the  Earth.  Some  seasons  ripen  food  much  more  per- 
fectly than  other  seasons,  and  it  is  then  more  healthy. 

642.  Is  THERE  NOTHING  ELSE  WANTED  ? YeS  ; first  of  all, 
there  must  be  Tissue  already  formed.  The  bean  plant- 


638.  Of  what  are  — ? Name  the  elements.  069.  How  may  — ? 640.  — ? 
641.  — ? 642.  — ? What  is  the  peculiar  character  of  tissue  by  which  it  differs 
from  everything  else  ? 


AND  GASES  INTO  ELEMENTS. 


171 


ed  takes  from  the  earth,  water,  and  air,  the  elements 
similar  to  those  of  which  the  bean  is  made,  and,  under 
the  sun  and  earth  influences,  grows,  that  is,  adds  to 
itself  the  elements  in  the  form  of  Tissue ; but  without 
the  nucleus  of  bean-tissue,  no  such  effect  takes  place. 
Tissue  must  always  be  the  nucleus  around  which  Tissue 
forms ; and  as  this  Tissue  is,  so  to  a great  degree  will 
be  what  is  formed  around  the  nucleus.  This  is  true  in 
animals  as  well  as  in  plants.  The  character  of  the  tissue 
is,  to  a great  degree,  determined  by  inheritance  there- 
fore ; though  it  may  be  improved  or  depraved  by  the 
treatment  the  plant,  animal,  or  child  receives ; yet,  in 
general,  the  good  or  inferior  qualities  of  the  nucleus 
tissue  will  remain  through  life. 

643.  It  is  therefore  of  importance  that  a person 
should  inherit  good  tissues.  It  is  usually  seen  that  per- 
sons who  have  long-lived  ancestors  are  long-lived,  while 
those  who  have  short-lived  ancestors  partake  of  their 
tendencies. 

644.  Underground,  or  part  underground  rooms, 
are  unhealthy,  not  only  because  they  shut  out  the  sun, 
but  because  the  earth’s  electrical  influences  below  the  sur- 
face are  unhealthy — and  it  is  more  healthy  to  live  in  an 
elevated  than  in  a low  position  on  the  surface.  Persons 
should  not  sleep  on  the  first  floor.  Every  room  in  a 
house  should  receive  the  sunlight ; and  when  streets  are 
laid  out,  they  should  extend  from  Northeast  to  South- 
west, or  from  Northwest  to  Southeast,  in  order  to  have 
the  sun  shine  on  all  sides  of  a house,  or  it  should  be 
so  located  as  to  gain  the  great  advantage  of  sunlight 
pouring  into  every  room  ; nor  should  blinds  or  trees 
be  allowed  to  keep  out  the  sun  for  the  whole  day, 
but  its  wholesome  influences  should  be  allowed  to 
stream  in. 


Is  animal  tissue  necessary  for  the  formation  of  an  animal?  Is  some  of  the 
tissue  of  each  plant  and  animal  necessary  to  the  continued  production  of  the 
same  kind  ? 643.  What  therefore  — ? 641.  What  is  said  of  — ? Of  sunlight? 


172 


SYNTHETIC  REVIEW. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

(CONCLUSION.) — SYNTHETIC  REVIEW. 

(See  page  176.) 

645.  To  CONSTRUCT  THE  BODY,  WE  REQUIRE,  first,  13 
chemical  Elements  ; second,  the  influences  of  the  Sun ; 
third,  the  influences  of  the  Earth ; and  fourth,  the  nucleus 
influence  of  Tissue — both  plant  and  animal.  Thus  can 
be  produced  Food,  Drink,  and  Air:  from  these,  in  the 
fifth  place,  may  be  compounded  the  6 Tissues  and  15 
Liquids  ; sixth,  from  a supply  of  Tissues,  39  Organs 
must  be  woven ; and  seventh,  arranged  in  10  Apparatus  ; 
eighth,  these  must  be  grouped  in  two  mechanisms ; 
having,  ninth,  6 members  ; forming,  tenth,  the  Body 
entire  ; to  which,  eleventh,  the  Mind  is  to  be  added,  and 
the  potential  Man  is  complete. 

646.  This  Mind  is  endowed  with  power  of  develop- 
ment through  the  aid  afforded  by  the  Body,  which  is 
merely  an  instrument  of  a double  character,  or  two 
mechanisms : one  adapted  to  keep  itself  in  good  con- 
dition, promote  its  growth,  &c.  ; the  other,  directly 
adapted  to  the  improvement  of  the  Mind  ; the  proper 
action  of  the  body  in  either  respect  is  productive  of 
enjoyment.  The  preservation  of  the  body  being  the 
most  imperative,  its  wants  are  the  most  urgent  and  in- 
tense, and  are  by  most  thought  the  most  desirable  to 
satisfy ; but  once  they  are  satisfied,  the  enjoyment  de- 
rived from  the  improvement  of  the  Mind  is  of  a far  higher 


645.  What  do  we  require  — first  ? second?  third?  fourth?  fifth?  sixth? 
seventh  ? eighth  ? ninth  ? tenth  ? eleventh  ? 646.  With  what  is  — ? What 
is  the  highest  and  best  enjoyment  ? (See  page  176.) 


SYNTHETIC  EEVIEW. 


173 


order.  Let  every  man,  therefore,  both  care  for  his  health 
and  improve  his  Mind. 

Let  him  properly 

Educate  his  Mind, 

Exercise  his  Body, 

Arrange  the  External  World  ; 

Rub  r Tbe  skin,  and  thus  promote  the 

°ea,n  j Circulation; 

Clothe  ( ’ 

Eat  proper  Food  temperately, 

Drink  good  water  not  to  excess, 

Breathe  pure  air  abundantly ; 

Rest  appropriately 
Sleep  sufficiently, 

And  cultivate  good  habits ; 

and  he  will  be  in  harmony  with  the  laws  of  the  universe 
designed  by  the  Deity  to  bless  all  the  works  of  his 
creation.  He  will  then  perceive  that  by  far  the  larger 
part  of  what  a man  can  enjoy,  is  gratuitously  bestowed 
upon  him,  to  possess  which  he  has  only  to  develop  his 
mind  to  the  proper  degree  ; that  while  he  must  be 
selfish  in  obtaining  and  enjoying  for  himself  alone  what- 
ever is  necessary  to  support  his  Body,  all  that  pertains 
to  mind  may  be  possessed  and  enjoyed  in  common  with 
others.  He  will  then  feel  the  full  importance  of  being 
educated  himself  not  only,  but  perceive  that  his  happi- 
ness will  be  increased  if  all  others  are  also  educated.  He 
will  perceive  that  the  promotion  of  Bodily  health  and 
the  cultivation  of  every  Mental  virtue,  personal,  social, 
and  reverential,  are  the  true  sources  of  enjoyment. 


What  are  golden  hint-words  ? In  how  many  groups  arranged  ? How  many 
lines  in  each  group  ? If  a person  observe  these,  what  will  be  the  result  ? What 
is  necessary  for  complete  enjoyment  ? (See  page  176.) 


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Applications.  Purposes. 


174 


APPENDIX. 


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APPENDIX. 


Let  this  leaf  and  the  one  following  be  cut  out  and 
pasted  or  gummed  to  each  other  and  to  the  one  pre- 
ceding this  at  the  places  indicated  by  the  stars  and 
daggers ; then  will  be  seen  a complete  abbreviated 
Analysis  of  man,  when  read  from  left  to  right,  or  a 
Synthesis,  if  read  from  right  to  left ; or  the  same  can 
be  read  in  the  same  manner  by  turning  the  pages  as 
they  stand.  The  chart  should  be  read  by  going  through 
with  ea?h  of  the  three  divisions  along  the  entire  length 
of  the  three  pages. 

Example : Analysis  : Body  — 6 divisions ; 2 Mechan- 
isms = 10  Apparatus  = 49  Organs  = 6 Tissues  + 15 
Liquids  + 2 gases  = 13  Elements.  Synthesis : from  13 
Elements  can  be  formed  = 2 gases  + 15  Liquids  + 6 
Tissues  = 49  Organs  = 10  Apparatus  = 2 Mechanisms 
= 6 Divisions  = Body  + Mind  = Man.  The  contents 
of  these  pages  should  be  laid  off,  enlarged,  upon  a black- 
board, or  on  large  sheets,  like  blank  newspapers,  not 
only  as  an  excellent  exercise  for  making  the  construc- 
tion of  the  Body  familiar,  but  as  a mental  calisthenic, 
classification  being  one  of  the  best  means  of  improving 
the  mind  that  can  be  used 


Six  kinds  of  Tissues  4-  Fifteen  Liquids  4*  Cases  = Organic  and  Chemical  Elements. 

Properties.  Properties.  Properties. 


APPENDIX. 


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PEEF  ACE. 


This  book  is  not  presented  to  Teachers  and  the  Public  merely  for 
the  benefit  of  the  Author  and  Publishers.  It  exhibits  a new  and  im- 
proved method  of  teaching  Physiology,  viz.,  by  Analysis  ; beginning 
with  what  is  obvious,  it  progresses  through  the  subject  by  the  easy 
steps  of  a systematic  classification,  clearly  showing  the  why  and  where- 
fore of  the  construction  of  the  Body.  The  style  and  mode  of  thought 
gradually  matures  to  the  close.  The  study  thus  conducted  will  prove 
one  of  the  very  best  calisthenics  and  gymnastics  for  the  youthful  mind, 
while  it  will  also  most  deeply  interest  and  correctly  instruct  the  pupil  in 
the  subject. 

This  book  is  therefore  progressive  in  two  respects  : in  its  method,  and 
in  being  in  advance  of  the  past.  In  every  other  branch  there  has  been 
progress ; why  should  Physiology  be  an  exception  to  the  spirit  of  the 
age  ? Why  may  it  not  be  modernized,  may  we  not  say  Americanized  ? 
It  is  now  out  of  the  “ rut.”  The  old  or  European  system  was  and  is 
good ; the  new  or  American  system  is  better.  None  should  adopt  it 
because  it  is  new,  nor  distrust  it  because  it  is  not  transatlantic.  Every- 
thing useful  was  at  one  time  new. 

The  method  of  the  questions  is  also  new ; without  occupying  too 
much  space,  it  permits  such  a number  that  the  answers  bring  out  all 
the  ideas  in  the  book ; but — 

To  teach  this  or  any  subject  well,  the  steps  are  : secure  attention,  in- 
form the  mind,  and  impress  the  feelings.  To  do  each,  use  illustrations. 
The  book  is  too  small  to  allow  many  to  be  introduced ; besides,  a 
teacher’s  mind  cannot  he  imbued  with  the  necessary  enthusiasm,  unless 
he  does  himself  become  so  far  an  author  as  to  look  up,  and  think  out, 
illustrations  of  every  point  taught.  Then  will  he  feel  and  arouse  the 
fire,  the  spirit,  and  the  enthusiasm,  that  always  mark  a successful 
teacher  and  scholar.  Cause  the  pupils  also  to  illustrate  when  they  can, 
no  matter  how  commonplace.  Illustrating  is  the  art  of  a good  teacher 
of  pupils  of  every  age  and  condition,  only  let  the  illustrations  be  adapt- 
ed to  the  subject  and  to  the  minds  of  the  pupils.  Therefore,  illustrate 
to  secure  attention  ; illustrate  to  inform  the  mind  ; illustrate  to  impress 
the  feelings ; in  short,  illustrate  at  every  step,  and  success  is  certain. 


